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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
BUREAU OF FISHERIES 

HUGH M. SMITH, Commissioner 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF 
THE ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS 



By E. P. CHURCHILL, Jr. 

Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries 



Appendix viii to the Report of the u. S. commissioner 
of Fisheries for 1919 




Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 890 



PRICE, 20 CENTS 

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 

Washington, D. C. 

WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1920 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

BUREAU OF FISHERIES 

HUGH M. SMITH, Commissioner 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF 
THE ATLANTIC 



By E. P. CHURCHILL, Jr. 

Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries 



APPENDIX VIII TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER 
OF FISHERIES FOR 1919 




Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 890 



PRICE, 20 CENTS 

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 

Washington, D. C. 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

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OCT 21 J929 



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CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction 5 

Geographical distribution ; 5 

Massachusetts 6 

Rhode Island 6 

Connecticut 6 

New York '. 6 

New Jersey 6 

Delaware 6 

Maryland 7 

Virginia , 7 

North Carolina ' 7 

South Carolina 7 

Georgia 7 

Florida 7 

Alabama *, 8 

Mississippi 8 

Louisiana '. 8 

Texas 8 

Output of various regions 8 

Description and anatomy 9 

Classification 9 

External appearance 9 

Anatomical features 9 

Life history 12 

Time of spawning 12 

Reproduction '. 12 

Growth 14 

Factors of environment 14 

Temperature of water 14 

Density of water 15 

Mud, silt, and suspended matter 15 

Tides and currents 16 

Depth of water 17 

Freshets, storms, and ice 17 

Food of the oyster 19 

Natural beds 20 

Development and description : 20 

Depletion 24 

Cultivation 25 

Artificial propagation 25 

Legal considerations 26 

Procuring ground 26 

Marking beds 27 

Methods of oyster culture 27 

Catching of spat, or "set" 27 

Cultch , 29 

Character and preparation of bottom 29 

Time for planting cultch 29 

Location of cultch beds 31 

Location of spawning beds 32 

General desirability of planting cultch ' 33 

Planting seed oysters 33 

Seed 34 

Water 35 

Food 35 

Bottom 36 

Sowing the seed 36 

Care of beds 36 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Cultivation—Continued. Page- 
Protection against enemies 36 

Starfish 36 

Drill 37 

Drumfish 38 

Conch 39 

Mussel 39 

Boring sponge 40 

Boring clam 40 

Wafer or "leech" 40 

Taking ovsters from the beds 40 

Tongs 40 

Patent tongs 41 

Small tongs and nippers 41 

Tonging boats 41 

Dredges and dredging boats 42 

Unloading at wharf - 43 

Floating 43 

Preparation for market or shipment 44 

In the shell 44 

Shucked, on ice 45 

Canning oysters -46 

Disposition of oyster shells 48 

Legal regulations 49 

Bibliography 50 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 











r£> 









BLUE POINTS, FROM NEAR BLUE POINT, LONG ISLAND. 
About one-half natural size. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF THE 
ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS. 



By E. P. Chukchill, Jr., Assistant, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The taking of oysters constitutes the most valuable fishery of the 
United States and one of the most valuable in the world. The 
annual yield in this country is about 30,000,000 bushels, with a return 
to the fishermen of nearly $15,000,000. At least 99 per cent of the 
oysters of the United States are produced on the Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts, as shown by the following table : 

Oyster Product op the United States. 
[From statistics collected by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.] 



Region. 



Private grounds. 



Public grounds. 



Total. 



New England States (1910).. . 
Middle Atlantic States' 

(1911-12) 

South Atlantic States (1910).. 

Gulf States (1918) 

Pacific Coast States (1915) 

Total 



Bushels. 
5, 549, 318 

7,090,883 
456, 194 

1,227,969 
152, 560 



14,476,924 



Value. 
83,439,450 

5,204,124 
171, 298 
528, 123 
548, 005 



Bushels. 
92, 703 

11,815,193 

1, 244, 804 

2, 165, 526 

3,544 



9,891,000 



15,301,770 



Value. 
$157, 584 

4,059,432 

192, 886 

578, 597 

8,619 



Bushels. 
5,942,021 

18,906,076 

1,700,998 

3,393,495 

156, 104 



4,997,118 



30,038,694 



Value. 
83,597,034 

9,263,556 
364,184 

1.006,720 
556,624 



14, 788, 118 



The report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for 1913 stated that 
the total number of persons engaged in the oyster industry of the 
United States was 67,257, the yearly wages paid amounting to 
$10,876,801, and that the investment in vessels, apparatus, property, 
etc., was over $17,000,000.° 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 

On the eastern and southern coasts of the United States oysters are 
found from Wellfleet, Mass., on the inner shore of Cape Cod, to the 
southern extremity of Texas. The industry on these coasts is 
bounded by the same limits. Although in past times oysters were 
found in Maine and New Hampshire, practically none occurs there 
now, and these two coastal States alone have no oyster industry. 

The location of the main oyster beds in each State concerned and 
the principal towns in which the industry is centered are cited below. 
The Atlantic and Gulf coast is not lined with a solid bed of oysters 
along its entire length. Oysters are not found in the open se°a, but in 
coves, bays, estuaries, and mouths of rivers — in a word, in partially 



a Report XJ. S. Commissioner of Fisheries, 1913, p. 40. Washington. 



D THE OYSTEB AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

inclosed waters rendered brackish by drainage from the land. This 
fact will become more apparent during the reading of the ensuing 
paragraphs. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

The main oyster beds are in Wellfleet Harbor, in the waters in the 
vicinity of Chatham, in Cotuit Harbor, and in Poponesset Bay. 
Some oysters are also taken from Centerville Harbor and from the 
mouths of Wareham and Taunton Rivers. The principal towns con- 
cerned are Wellfleet, Chatham, Cotuit, and Falmouth. The oysters 
are shipped in the shell or shucked, on ice. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

The main oyster beds are in Narragansett Bay, the industry being 
centered at Providence, where there are about a half dozen oyster- 
houses. The oysters are shipped in the shell or shucked, on ice. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Although oysters are found along practically the entire coast, the 
principal beds are inside Thimble Islands, in New Haven Harbor, 
Milford Bay, Bridgeport Harbor, South Norwalk Harbor, around 
Great Captains Island, and in the deeper water offshore from these 
places. All the oysters are shipped in the shell or shucked, on ice. 
There are 6 oyster houses at South Norwalk, 16 at New Haven, and 1 
each at Milford, Stony Creek, Guilford, and New London. 

NEW YORK. 

The oyster beds of New York are in the waters around Long Island. 
The oysters are shipped in the shell or shucked, on ice. There are 4 
oyster houses at Greenport, 1 at Suffolk, and 2 at Northport, on the 
north side of the island. On the south, West Sayville and Patchogue 
are the centers of the oyster trade, there being extensive beds in Great 
South Bay. New York City is the great center of the oyster trade of 
the State. 

NEW JERSEY. 

The main oyster beds are in Raritan,. Barnegat, and Great Bay, on 
the eastern coast, the oysters being handled chiefly at Tuckerton and 
Keysport; and in Delaware Bay, on the west, especially in Mauri ce 
Cove and vicinity. The oysters from this region are shipped from 
Bivalve, where there are several houses handling oysters in the shell 
or shucked, on ice. 

. DELAWARE. 

The oyster beds are in Delaware Bay, mainly from Bombay Hook 
to below the mouth of St. James Creek. Most of the oysters are 
marketed through Bivalve, N. J. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 7 

MARYLAND. 

The principal oyster beds are in the Chesapeake Bay, there being 
some, however, in Chincoteague Bay and Potomac River. The num- 
ber of oyster houses at the main centers of trade are as follows : Cris- 
field, 40; Baltimore, 28 (15 being oyster canneries); Cambridge, 25; 
Oxford, 15; Annapolis, 13; Tilghman, 8; and St. Michaels, 6. There 
are about 160 oyster houses in all in the State. Baltimore is the only 
city in the State where oysters are steamed and canned, and is the 
most northerly point on the coast where this process is employed. 

VIRGINIA. 

The waters covering the main oyster beds of the State are those of 
Chesapeake Bay, Chincoteague Bay, and the eastern coast of Accomac 
and Northampton Counties, and the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, 
and James Rivers. There are about 35 oyster houses, 19 at Norfolk 
and Portsmouth, 2 at Hampton, 1 at Phoebus, 3 at West Point, 
2 at Urbanna, and others scattered about in Northampton, Middle- 
sex, Lancaster, and Accomac Counties. The oysters are shipped 
in the shell or shucked, on ice, none being canned. One firm prepares 
an oyster powder from the dried meats. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Four-fifths of the oyster beds of this State are in Pamlico Sound. 
There is one cannery at each of the following points: Beaufort, 
Morehead City, Washington, Vandimere, Davis, Bay River, and 
Sea Level. There is one shucking house, or "raw house," as such a 
place is termed in the South to distinguish it from a cannery, at 
Newbern and several at Wilmington. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Most of the oyster beds are in St. Helena and Port Royal Sounds 
near the southern extremity of the coast. There are five canneries 
at Charleston and six at Beaufort, besides two or three at smaller 
cities. 

GEORGIA. 

The oyster beds are found along the entire coast line, especially 
in St. Catherines, Sapelo, Do Boy, Altamaha, St. Simons, St. Andrews, 
and Cumberland Sounds. There are 18 canneries in the State — 
four at Savannah, and the rest scattered along the coast. There are 
five wholesale dealers in raw oysters, besides several retailers at 
Savannah, Brunswick, and other points. 

FLORIDA. 

The principal oyster industry of the State is located at Apalachi-, 
cola, where there are four canneries and nearly a dozen raw houses, 
the oysters coming from Apalachicola Bay and contiguous waters. 
There is a small oyster business at Carabelle and some beds at Cedar 
Keys. A few oysters are canned at Fernandina, on the east coast. 
There is a small local oyster business at other points in the State. 



8 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

ALABAMA. 

The oysters are found in the lower part of Mobile Bay and the 
east end of Mississippi Sound. There are 13 dealers in oysters in 
Mobile, but most of the oysters are opened or reshipped in the shell 
at Bayou Labatre and small adjacent points on the Mississippi 
Sound! The only oyster cannery in the State is located at Bayou 
Labatre. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

The principal oyster beds in this State are in Mississippi Sound, but 
90 per cent of the oysters opened in the State are brought from 
Louisiana waters, especially from St. Bernard Parish. At Biloxi 
there are 12 canneries and 6 raw houses, the only city having a 
larger number of canneries being Baltimore, Md., which has 15. 
The following Mississippi cities have one cannery and one or two raw 
houses each: Gulfport, Pass Christian, Bay St. Louis, and Ocean 
Springs. 

LOUISIANA. 

The principal oyster beds are in the waters on the east of St. 
Bernard Parish, although important beds are found on the coast of 
Terrebonne and Plaquemines Parishes, and others are being devel- 
oped to the westward. As a result of experiments conducted by the 
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries between 1906 and 1909, valuable oyster 
beds were established in Barataria Bay. These were subsequently 
broken up by a hurricane and the oysters washed about to different 
parts of the bay. From the natural propagation of the oysters so 
scattered several beds developed which have grown to be of consider- 
able value. There are about 24 wholesale oyster dealers in New 
Orleans. One cannery is located near New Orleans, two farther 
down the river, two or three at Houma in Terrebonne Parish, and a 
new one is just starting at Franklin. 

TEXAS. 

The principal oyster beds of this State are in Galveston, West, 
Matagorda, Lavaca, Espiritu Santo, Aransas, Mesquite, and Corpus 
Christi Bays. There are from two to six oyster-shucking houses at 
Corpus Christi, Port Aransas, Rockport, Port O'Connor, Port Lavaca, 
Seadrift, Palacios, Matagorda, and Galveston. There are no oyster 
canneries in this State. 

OUTPUT OF VARIOUS REGIONS. 

Chesapeake Bay produces more oysters than any other body of 
water in the world. a Some notion of the size of the industry there 
may be gained from Plate XVIII, figure 1, showing the oyster fleet 
operating out of Cambridge, Md., which is only one of the several 
large oyster centers on this bay. Virginia and Maryland, within 
whose borders Chesapeake Bay is embraced, lead the United States 
in oyster production with over 5,000,000 bushels each annually. 6 

a Smith, H. M. Oysters: The "World's Most Valuable Water Crop. National Geographic Magazine, 
March, 1913, rj. 231. Washington. 
& Report, U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries, 1913, p. 41. Washington. 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate II. 




OYSTER WITH RIGHT SHELL AND MANTLE REMOVED. 

A., anus; A. M., adductor muscle; Au., auricle of heart; D., digestive gland or liver- G 
gills; I., intestine; M., mantle; Mo., mouth; O., oesophagus; P., palps; R reproduc- 
N V a e tu°7 a hr t" \ t0mach; Vi ' ventricle of hea rt. (Photo from American Museum of 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate III. 






1. 







/ 



f / 







\ 



' \ 




/ 



FIG. 1.— SPERMATOZOON OF MALE OYSTER. Magnified 1 ,700 diameters. (AfterStafford.) 

FIG. 2. — OYSTER EGG. Magnified 600 diameters. 

FIG. 3.— FREE-SWIMMING LARVA OF OYSTER, ABOUT 10 DAYS OLD. Magnified 

300 diameters. 
FIG. 4.— FREE-SWIMMING OYSTER LARVA WITH VELUM, OR SWIMMING ORGAN 

EXTENDED. Magnified 300 diameters. 

(Figs. 2, 3, and 4 drawn by J. S. Gutsell.) 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 9 

Connecticut is third with over 4,000,000 bushels. Rhode Island, 
New York, New Jersey, and Louisiana produce over 1,000,000 
bushels annually. 

DESCRIPTION AND ANATOMY." 

CLASSIFICATION . 

The oyster of commerce in the United States, with the exception 
of certain parts of the Pacific coast, is the so-called "eastern oyster," 
belonging to the species Ostrea virginica, Gmelin. It is a member 
of the group of molluscs popularly known as bivalves, since it has 
two valves, or shells, which are joined at the narrower ends by a 
hinge. 

EXTERNAL APPEARANCE. 

The figures in Plates I, XX, and XXI, though reduced in size, 
give an idea of the usual shape and appearance of the oyster. The 
average length of the shells of the marketable size is about 5 inches. 
Oysters, however, may grow to much greater dimensions, and under 
certain conditions of growth, such as crowding or development on 
a mud bottom, are forced into various distorted or elongated shapes. 

The shell of the adult oyster varies greatly in thickness, ranging 
in extreme cases from somewhat less than one-fourth inch to an 
inch and one-fourth. The usual thickness is from one-fourth to 
three-eighths inch, decreasing to paperlike thinness on the margins 
of a rapidly growing shell. 

The exterior is marked by laminations and more or less concentric lines of growth; 
it is often covered by a yellowish cuticle, but is sometimes white and flinty in. appear- 
ance. The inside of the shell is generally white, somewhat tinged with purple near 
the margins, and with a more or less pearly luster. The muscular impression is gen- 
erally nearer to the posterior margin than to the hinge; it is a well-defined scar, kidney- 
shaped in specimens of ordinary size, but becoming more elongate in very large indi- 
viduals; in young specimens it is pale, but it afterwards becomes purple or almost 
black. The left, or lower, valve is deeply concave within, the upper valve being 
flat or, usually, slightly concave. The animal portions are large, nearly filling the 
shell, and the mantle border is comparatively narrow. b 

ANATOMICAL FEATURES. 

The two valves of the shell of the oyster are held together at the 
hinge by a dark-colored elastic ligament so placed that it tends to 
throw the free ends of the valves slightly apart when the large 
muscle of the oyster is cut or relaxed. The main structures of 
interest making up the body of the oyster are shown in Plate II and 
in text figure 1. Plate II represents an oyster lying in the left valve, 
which is deeper than the right, and more cup-shaped. This is also 
nearly always the valve by which the oyster is attached to rocks, etc. 
The flatter right valve is represented as having been removed. The 
narrow part of the oyster is the anterior or front end, the mouth 
being located in that region. The broad part is the posterior or 
rear end. The back or dorsal side is at the top of the picture and 
the ventral or under side below. The oyster, however, being at- 
tached by its left side, may rest in the water in any conceivable 
position, depending on the surface to which it has fastened itself. 

a The brief account of the anatomy and life history of the oyster is based chiefly on the researches of 
Brooks (1S95), Julius Kelson (1SS8-1S93 and 1900-1915), and Stafford (1913). 
6 Moore, H. F. (1897, p. 266.) 



10 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

Each valve or shell is lined with a thin membrane called the mantle, 
fringed on the edge and attached to the shell over nearly all its ex- 
panse, but free along the margin. The right mantle has been re- 
moved with the shell in Plate II. In about the center of the body 
is the large adductor muscle, by the contraction of which the oyster 
closes its shell. As stated above, when this muscle is relaxed or 
cut, the ligament hi the hinge forces the valves apart. The main 
body of the oyster lies between the right and left sides of the mantle 
and is attached to it and the adductor muscle. It will thus be seen 
that the oyster is held to the shell by the mantle and the muscle. 

In Plate II part of the body wall is represented as having been re- 
moved with the right side of the mantle, thus exposing to view the 
liver or digestive gland and the oesophagus or gullet leading' from the 
mouth to the stomach, which opens into the intestine. This extends 
downward and backward beneath the muscle, then curves sharply 
and runs forward on the left of the stomach to the oesophagus, 
where it again turns to the rear and extends backward to the vent 
or anus above the muscle. 

In a thin-walled sac, the pericardium, immediately in front of the 
muscle, lies the real heart of the oyster. (The adductor muscle is 
often erroneously referred to as the "heart," since when it is cut 
the oyster eventually dies from inablility to close its valves.) The 
circulatory system of the oyster is of the "open" type; that is, the 
arteries do not terminate in capillaries which lead to the veins, as 
in man, but deliver the blood, which is colorless, into large spaces, 
or lacunae, between the tissues. The blood, as it spreads through 
these lacunas, bathes the various cells of the body and is then gathered 
up by the veins and collected in the auricle or lower chamber of the 
heart. It then passes into the ventricle, or upper chamber, which 
contracts and forces the blood through arteries to the different parts 
of the body. A hinged valve between the two chambers of the heart 
prevents the blood being driven back into the auricle. 

The nervous system of the oyster (not shown in the figures) is 
very simple, consisting of two ganglia or knots of nervous matter, 
lying just over the gullet and two nerves passing back from them, 
one on each side, to another pair of ganglia beneath the adductor 
muscle. Smaller nerves extend from these two pairs of ganglia to 
the various parts of the body. 

At the anterior end of the body four thin lips or palps hang free in 
the mantle cavity and extend backward from beneath the mouth for 
about one-third the length of the body, the posterior ends lapping 
under the ends of the gills. The latter, four in number, are somewhat 




r ery 

cilia, arranged in rows. These beat back and forth and, when the 
oyster is lying with the valves open, cause a current of sea water to 
pass on to the gills. The water is forced through fine openings on 
the surfaces of the gills into water tubes inside the gills and thence 
into the cavity above them. As the water passes through the gills 
the blood is aerated as in the case of a fish. In Plate II the openings 
of the tubes can be seen on the inner edge of the gills. The right 
mantle having been removed, the cavity into which the water passes 
is exposed. It lies in tne space just above the inner edge of the gills. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



11 



From this cavity the water passes behind the adductor muscle and 
out between the edges of the valves of the shell around the rear end 
of the gills, at a point in the upper left of the figure. 

The food of the oyster consists entirely of minute animal and vegetable organisms 
and small particles of organized matter. Ordinary sea water contains an abundance 
of this sort of food, which is drawn into the gills with the water, but as the water 
strains through the pores into the water tuiss , the food particles are caught on the 
surface of the gills by a layer of adhesive slime .vjVich covers all the soft parts of the 
body. As soon as they are entangled the cilia strike against them in such a way as 
to roll or slide them along the gills toward the mouth. When they reach the anterior 
ends of the gills they are pushed off and fall between the lips, and these again are 
covered with cilia, which carry the particles forward until they slide into the mouth, 
which is always wide open and ciliated, so as to draw the food through the oesophagus 
into the stomach. Whenever the shell is open these cilia are in action, and as long as 
the oyster is breathing a current of food is sliding into its mouth. a 

The food then passes to the stomach, is acted on by the fluids from 
tUo liver, and moves along the intestine. The nutritive portion is 




Fig. 1. — Diagram of dissection of oyster to show reproductive organ, consisting of the branching tubules 
spread over the dotted portion.* au, auricle of heart; d, external opening of reproductive organ; g, 
gills; M, adductor muscle; m, mouth; p, palps; ve, ventricle of heart; y, posterior end of gills. About 
natural size. (After Moore.) 

absorbed and the feces are thrown out the vent in long, ribbonlike 
form and carried outside the shell with the stream of water passing 
out from the chamber over the gills. 

The position, form, and general appearance of the reproductive 
organs of the oyster are the same for both sexes. Really there is but 
one reproductive organ, which consists of a mass made up of micro- 
scopic tubules and connective tissue lying between the folds of the 
intestine and investing it and the stomach and liver in such a manner 
as to cover the visceral organs when the opened oyster is viewed from 
either side. In Plate II most of the reproductive organ has been 
removed, a small portion being shown about the lolds of the intestine. 
Text figure 1 represents an oyster with the left valve and mantle 
removed, showing the reproductive organ as it appears from the 
left side, covering the visceral mass and partially surrounding the 
heart and adductor muscle. Numerous ducts arise from the organ, 
unite into one and open at point d below the adductor muscle. A view 

a Brooks, W. K. (1880. p. 9.) 



12 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

of the right side of the organ would present practically the same 
appearance, there being a similar system of ducts opening on that 
side beneath the muscle. Through" these two openings the genital 
products are discharged into the water at spawning time. 

LIFE HISTORY. 

TIME OF SPAWNING. 

The oyster may spawn when the water reaches a temperature of 
68° F., but spawning proceeds at normal speed only when the water 
is 70° or above. For this reason the spawning period varies in 
different regions, depending on the temperature of the water, which 
is regulated by the depth of the water and the general meteorological 
conditions. Shallow bodies of water, even though in more northern 
latitudes, often become warm as early or earlier than deeper waters 
farther south. In the north, where the season is shorter, the spawn- 
ing period is relatively short, often lasting only two or three weeks, 
while in the south oysters may be found in a spawning condition 
from early spring until fall. 

In Long Island Sound, the bulk of the oysters spawn about the 
last of July; in Great South Bay, spawning occurs from about 
June 5 until after the Fourth of July. In New Jersey waters spawn- 
ing begins about June 1. Spawning extends in Chesapeake Bay 
from May until September. On the Gulf coast, spawning begins in 
March and spawning oysters may be found as late as November. 

REPRODUCTION. 

In spite of the fact that the sex of the oyster can not be distinguished 
by the external appearance of the shell, of the body, or of the repro- 
ductive organs, the sexes are separate. Some oysters are male, the 
reproductive organs developing spermatozoa or milt; other oysters 
are female and produce ova or eggs. While it has at times been 
stated that the sex might change from year to year, an oyster being 
perhaps male one year and female the next, or the reverse, there is 
no evidence on which to base this belief, except some inconclusive 
researches made nearly 50 years ago and not borne out by sub- 
sequent investigations. It can be almost conclusively stated that 
the sex of the eastern oyster is permanent and does not change 
during the life of the individual. 

The sexes can be distinguished only by an examination of the 
products discharged by the reproductive organs. The spermatozoa 
and eggs are so extremely small that a lens must be employed to 
distinguish one from the other. The eggs (PI. Ill, fig. 2) vary from 
roughly pear-shaped to oval or nearly spherical and measure about 
■j-^-o of an inch in diameter. It is estimated that.a female oyster v ill 
produce over 16,000,000 eggs. The male genital products, or sperma- 
tozoa, are many times smaller than the eggs. Each spermatozoon 
(PL III, fig. 1) is made up of a head about 10,000 of an inch in 
diameter, pointed at one end and flattened at the other. To this 
flat base is attached a very slender threadlike tail about 20 times 
the length of the head. This tail lashes about and moves the 
spermatozoon around in the water after it has been discharged by 
the male ovster. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 13 

Fertilization of the eggs occurs in the water. The oysters, male 
and female, lying about over the bottom, at spawning time discharge 
the reproductive elements into the water where they mingle as chance 
may bring about. The more numerous the oysters on a particular 
bed, the greater the chance of the actively moving spermatozoa 
meeting the eggs. The spermatozoa swarm around the eggs, many 
about each one, until a spermatozoon penetrates the egg membrane, 
the head only of the spermatozoon passing on in, the tail dropping 
off. The material of the head unites with that of the egg, and 
important changes in the latter are thereby initiated. 

The single cell of the egg begins to divide into many cells and to 
change its form and in the course of from 5 to 10 hours develops 
into a small oyster larva, which swims by means of fine hairs or cilia 
on the outside of its body. A shell then begins to develop and soon 
covers the entire body, so that the larva resembles a tiny hard clam. 
A definite organ of locomotion also appears, consisting of a disk, 
known as the velum, borne on the end of a thick stalk which is pro- 
truded from between the valves of the shell in front. The disk 
bears cilia which by their movement enable the larva to swim about 
rapidly (PL III, fig. 4). When the velum is retracted the larva 
settles to the bottom. 

The larva is now about two days old and measures about 0.08 mm. 
in length. As it increases in size certain elevations, the umbones, 
can be noted on the upper part of the hinge, one on each side. Shortly 
one valve becomes much deeper than the other, and the umbo on 
it much more prominent than that on the right side, and by this 
characteristic the oyster larva may be readily distinguished under 
the microscope from the larval form of any other bivalve. The 
deeper valve is the left one and that by which the oyster later becomes 
attached. During the advanced stages of the larval form, the left 
umbo is very conspicuous, jutting back in almost the form of a 
hook (PL III, fig. 3). 

The period passed through by the oyster larva from the develop- 
ment of the cilia, a few hours after fertilization, until it "sets" or 
"strikes" is known as the free-swimming stage. Although the 
larva swims about freely in the water, being so small, its move- 
ments and location at any particular time are largely subject to the 
tides and currents. The free-swimming period lasts from about 14 
to 18 days in the more northern waters and a somewhat shorter 
time in the southern. The warmer the water the more rapidly 
development occurs and consequently the shorter the free-swimming 
period. 

At the close of the free-swimming period, when the oyster is about 
one- third of a millimeter (one seventy-fifth of an inch) long, it "sets" 
if the proper conditions are present. It attaches itself by the left 
valve to some surface in the water, a rock, shell, stake, in fact almost 
any object (PL IV). 

The first essential is that the surface should be clean and that it should remain so 
a sufficient length of time. to enable the young oyster to firmly establish itself. So 
long as this condition obtains, the nature of the material seems to matter but little. 
In most bodies of water the spat fixes itself at all levels from the surface to the bottom 
but in certain parts of the coast its place of attachment is confined to the zone between 
high and low water, the midtide mark being the place of maximum fixation. 

a Moore, H. F. (1897, p. 274.) 



14 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

Once secured, the swimming organ disappears and the oyster never 
wanders again of its own volition. 

GROWTH. 

The shell is secreted by the mantle, the membrane lining the shell. 
Horny material is first deposited over the outer surface of the mantle 
and to this is added lime, forming the familiar hard shell. As the 
mantle increases in size with the general growth of the rest of the 
body, and as it can be extended somewhat from between the edges 
of the valves, new shell material is added to the inner surface of the 
valve and to the outer edge. This makes each valve thick in the 
central portion, sloping to a condition of extreme thinness at the 
edges. The outer edges of the valves of a rapidly growing oyster 
are so thin and knifelike that care must be exercised in handling 
them to avoid cutting the fingers. 

The rate of growth of oysters varies widely, depending on tem- 
perature, density and food content of the water, season of the year, 
and other factors. Its growth is more rapid in the warmer southern 
waters than in the colder northern. In Long Island Sound about 
four years are required for an oyster to reach a length of 4 to 5 inches, 
or marketable size. In southern waters that size is reached in two 
years. Oysters if left undisturbed may attain a length of 8 to 10 
inches or more. While the exact age which an oyster may reach 
can not be definitely stated, oysters have been found which appeared 
from the number of layers in the shell to be at least 15 years of age. 

Oysters which have unrestricted space for growth acquire the normal 
shape shown in Plates I, XX, and XXI. When crowded together, 
the shape becomes modified, even greatly distorted at times. Often 
numerous set will fasten upon a relatively small piece of cultch, and 
as growth proceeds a crowded cluster of oysters will result. If 
broken apart by pressure of growth or by artificial means, their 
shape will improve. 

The crowding of oysters reaches its climax upon the "raccoon " oyster beds. Rac- 
coon oysters are usually found in localities where the bottom is soft and the only 
firm place which offers itself for the attachment of the spat is upon the shells of its 
ancestors. Temperature and other conditions are favorable, growth is rapid, the young 
oysters are crowded into the most irregular shapes, the shells are long, thin, and sharp- 
edged, and eventually the mass of young is so dense that it crowds out and smothers 
the preceding generations which produced it and offered means for its attachment. 
Oysters crowded in this excessive manner are poor-flavored, as well as ill-shaped, 
but both defects are corrected if they be broken apart, as may be readily done, and 
planted elsewhere.^ 

FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENTS 
TEMPERATURE OF WATER. 

The fact that the oyster is found from Cape Cod to Mexico shows 
that it can become adapted to living in waters of considerable differ- 
ence of temperature and in certain regions may withstand wide 
changes during the course of the seasons. In Long Island Sound 

« Moore, H. F. (1897, p. 275. "> 

&The outline of this section, "Factors of Environment," and of the one following, "Natural Beds," ami 
the details of certain topics therein, specifically stated in each such case, are substantially as prepan 
Dr. H. F. Moore, Deputy Commissioner of Fisheries, for an uncompleted revision of his "Ovster< aid 
Methods of Oyster Culture" (1897). 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 15 

the temperature over the oyster beds falls in winter nearly to 32° F., 
the freezing point, and in summer rises to 72° in deep water and 
75 to 78° over the inshore beds. In Chesapeake Bay oysters in 
certain shallow water beds withstand variation from the freezing 
point, below 32 to 90° F. a In the Gulf of Mexico the usual range 
of temperature over the oyster beds is from 50 to 90° F. The rela- 
tion between temperature and the spawning of oysters has been 
discussed on page 12. 

DENSITY OF WATER. 

The higher the proportion of salt contained in sea water the 
greater the density. Therefore, it is common practice to estimate 
the proportion of salt by measuring the density of the water with the 
salinometer. This consists of a glass bulb with a narrow stem at one 
end on which are gradings reading from 1.000 to 1.031. The bulb 
is weighted at the end opposite the stem, so that it will sink some- 
what below the surface, leaving the stem projecting from the water. 
The less salt in the water the less the density and the lower the 
salinometer will sink. Fresh water is arbitrarily considered as 
1.000 and the point on the stem of the salinometer to which the water 
reaches when the instrument is placed in fresh water is so marked. 
Grades are marked below that on the stem, the bulb rising higher 
in the water the greater the density. The highest grade is usually 
1.031. For convenience three bulbs are usually used, one reading 
from 1.000 to 1.011, one from 1.010 to 1.021, and one from 1.020 to 
1.031. Common sea water usually reads from 1.025 to 1.026 on the 
salinometer. Oysters are found in water ranging in density from 
1.002 to 1.025, but can not withstand densities lower than 1.007 
for indefinite periods. In general they seem to thrive best in 
densities between 1.011 and 1.022. 

Oysters are not usually found out in the main body of the sea- 
water, away from the influence of the fresh water from the streams, 
where the density is 1.025 or more. It will thus be apparent that 
oysters have become adapted to a certain range of densities, and 
natural beds have grown up at points fairly close to shore or in 
inclosed bays where the salinity of the seawater is modified by the 
inflowing of fresh water. 

MUD, SILT, AND SUSPENDED MATTER. 6 

A bottom composed of slightly shifting sands or of very soft mud 
into which the adult oysters will sink and on which the minute spat 
can gain no firm support is alike unfavorable to oyster culture and 
to the development of natural beds. If, however, hard objects be 
distributed on or above such bottoms they will become collectors of 
spat so long as they remain clean and free from slime or sediment, 
and if it be desired to produce permanent beds or to catch the float- 
ing spat for the purpose of seeding other beds it is manifest that, 
the scouring action of the currents being equal, waters containing 
a minimum of sedimentary matter are to be preferred to those more 
or less laden with mud. 

o Moore, H. F. (1897, p. 280.) 

b Moore, H. F. Proposed revision of "Oysters and Methods of Oyster Culture" (1897). 



16 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

In this connection a distinction must be drawn between beds used 
for seed production and those employed in growing and fattening 
stock for the market. Oysters will frequently grow more rapidly 
in silt-laden waters, on muddy bottoms, or in their vicinity, than 
they will elsewhere, as such places are usually more productive of 
food organisms, owing to the larger amount of dissolved material 
available for the sustenance of the minute plants which constitute 
a considerable part of the food of the oyster. 

Even adult oysters may be destroyed, however, by heavy deposits 
of silt such as often result from freshets and crevasses. For the 
purposes of seed culture or the establishment of self -perpetuating 
beds the most desirable waters are those which contain an abundance 
of microscopic vegetation with a minimum of suspended inorganic 
particles, although an organic slime such as rapidly forms on sub- 
merged surfaces in some localities is as effective hi preventing the 
fixation of spat as is inorganic sediment. In many places in Chesa- 
peake Bay and in the bays on the New Jersey coast the sediment, 
as well as the bottom mud, is largely composed of finely comminuted 
fragments of seaweeds and other vegetable matter the rapid deposit 
of which soon covers with a flocculent film the surfaces of all objects 
exposed to it, excepting when the currents are sufficiently strong to 
exert a scouring influence. During warm weather this organic 
deposit is likely to undergo rapid decomposition, the toxic products 
of which sicken and kill the oysters. 

The more or less constant dribbling of fine material upon the 
bottom has comparatively little effect upon adult oysters, operating 
mainly to cover the shells and prevent the attachment of spat or to 
stifle the young oysters after attachment. This rain of fine material 
occurs almost everywhere but especially where the currents are weak, 
and it is generally in the latter localities that it is of sufficient volume 
to be obnoxious, 

TIDES AND CURRENTS. 

The effects of tides and currents upon the development and growth 
of oysters are quite important. The genital products, cast directly 
into the water as previously stated, are moved about so that more 
opportunity is afforded for the contact of the spermatozoa of the 
male with the eggs of the female. 

The free-swimming larvae are carried to and fro by the tides and 
currents, and thus when large enough to set are often some distance 
from where they were spawned. The importance of this fact in the 
method of oyster culture by planting cultch is very great and the 
matter is discussed under a separate section on page 31. 

Tides and currents tend to prevent the fouling of material upon 
which the larvae set by washing away silt and debris. In still water, 
as in an inclosed bay, the suspended debris has an opportunity to 
settle upon the cultch and form a slime and film which prevents the 
attachment of the larvae. If the larvae have attached, the deposit 
is often sufficient to smother them. 

Since the food of oysters consists of microscopic materials found 
in the water (see p. 19), it follows that currents affect the distribu- 
tion of the food of the oyster. In still water, nearly all the organ- 
isms might settle to the bottom or those in the neighborhood of the 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 17 

oyster might become exhausted. Currents keep the material agi- 
tated and cause a fresh supply to sweep across the oyster beds. 

Movement of the water also brings a fresh supply of oxygen to 
the oyster which aerates the blood by oxygen derived from the water 
passed through its gills. 

DEPTH OF WATER.® 

The known vertical range of oysters under natural conditions is 
from or near high-water mark to a depth of about 130 feet, the 
latter extreme occurring over densely stocked and productive beds 
in Patuxent River, Md. In a large part of the oyster region of 
South Carolina the natural beds occur almost exclusively between 
high and low water marks, and some of the beds of Florida are 
similarly situated, the oysters growing on the aerial roots of man- 
groves, as they frequently or generally do in Porto Rico and others 
of the West Indies. In places on the Gulf coast oysters set and 
grow in limited numbers in the grass on the edges of the marsh 
prairies above the level reached by many high tides, but in such 
situations they are frequently killed by freezing. 

In the Mississippi delta region a good set is often obtained on 
cultch planted at or near high- water mark, but the young oysters 
are removed to deeper water before cold weather arrives. 

Elsewhere oysters are rarely planted in this country on bottoms 
exposed at low water. In most places comparatively shallow depths 
ranging from 2 to 12 or 15 feet are utilized in oyster culture, but in 
Long Island Sound the practice has been successfully extended to 
depths of 60 feet or more. 

FRESHETS, STORMS, AND ICE. a 

Freshets occur with more or less frequency in the rivers discharg- 
ing near the oyster beds of many of the South Atlantic and Gulf 
Coast States, and with them are to be classed the crevasses or breaks 
in the levees which sometimes accompany high water in the coastal 
streams of Louisiana. 

The effects of a freshet are twofold. The most immediate effect 
is that, owing to the vastly increased volume of fresh water dis- 
charged, the salinity of the water over the oyster beds is reduced 
far below the normal and in many cases becomes fresh or practically 
so for considerable periods. As already stated in another connec- 
tion, this is often fatal to the oysters already on the beds, and, even 
when this is not the case, the production of a set is inhibited during 
the prevalence of the abnormal conditions. 

Freshets also carry large quantities of mud and debris, scoured 
from old channels and washed from the land, and as the currents 
slacken in the bays and estuaries, where the oyster abounds, their 
carrying power diminishes, and the materials are dropped on the beds. 
If the deposits so made be deep, the old oysters may be killed, while 
even a light deposit is sufficient to prevent the attachment of spat 
until it be again gradually scoured from the shells and other hard 
bodies on the bottom. 

a Moore, H. F. Proposed revision of "Oysters and Methods of Oyster Culture" (1897)*. 
181698°— 20 2 



18 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

It sometimes happens that a freshet of unusual severity, while 
disastrous in its immediate effects, results eventually in an increased 
productiveness of the beds. If the disaster be due to a prolonged 
freshening of the water without an undue deposit of silt, the shells 
are often left in a much-improved condition. This is apparently 
due in part to the more active scouring action of currents of more 
than usual velocity, but mainly to the destruction of the organic 
slime, which often covers the shells in sea water, and the cultch is 
thereby left in a more favorable condition for the attachment of 
spat carried from more or less distant beds. The fresh water also 
exterminates the drills which feed on the little oysters, and, as Dr. 
Moore's observations of improved sets under the conditions described 
indicate that sets usually occur in waters of rather high normal 
salinity, where the drill ordinarily thrives, it is probable that this 
action of the fresh water is no unimportant beneficial factor. The 
oysters, from the nature of their reproductive and developmental 
characteristics, are able to reestablish themselves much more rapidly 
than their enemies. 

Gales, to have an effect on adult oysters in moderately deep water, 
must be of extraordinary severity, but they frequently do great 
damage or exterminate beds in shoal water. The waves sometimes 
pick up the oysters and throw them on the beach, but more fre- 
quently they are destroyed by being buried in situ by sand, sea- 
weeds, and debris piled up by the sea. Cases are known of where 
well-established beds have been overwhelmed by such deposits and 
others in which thick strata of sand between layers of old shells indi- 
cate a succession of such disasters in the more or less remote history 
of the beds. 

Sometimes the eroding effect of currents and waves will uncover 
the buried oysters and shells, and the beds will again reestablish 
themselves through the attachment of young; but in other cases the 
beds are permanently destroyed. The former is the usual result 
when the reefs rise rather abruptly from the surrounding bottom, 
and the latter is frequent when they are but little elevated above 
the general floor of the sea. Planted beds, which usually lie at the 
general level of the bottom, are usually permanently covered. 

Gales are sometimes agents in the establishment of new beds, 
carrying oysters and shells to surrounding barren bottoms, where 
they form a nucleus that gradually develops into economic impor- 
tance. Certain productive beds at the eastern end of Mississippi 
Sound, by character and by repute, appear to have been so estab- 
lished. 

The free-swimming larva? are more susceptible to the weather 
conditions than are the adults, and cold rain storms, which would 
have no effect on the latter, undoubtedly kill large numbers of the 
swimming young. This was first noticed by Ryder and has been 
amply corroborated." 

Ice is occasionally destructive to oyster beds quite independently 
of the factor of temperature. When heavy ice grounds at extremely 
low tides, it sometimes crushes the oysters or presses them into 

a The author and J. S. Gutsell, during the study of the occurrence of free-swimming oyster larvae in 
Great South Bay, 1919, found that the average number in 50 gallons of water was 8,339 on July 8. A vio- 
lent squall and rain followed, together with a drop in temperature of 5° F. On July 11, as soon as collec- 
tions could ho made, the average number had dropped to 3,558 larva per 50 gallons of water. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



19 



the bottom, and occasionally they freeze fast to the underside of 
the ice and are carried away when it floats. 



FOOD OF THE OYSTER. 

The food of the oyster consists of microscopic plants and animals 
and organic detritus growing or found in the water on and above 
the bottoms on which the oysters lie, or carried to such waters 
by currents. 

A large proportion of the oyster's food is made up of the plant 
forms which are known as diatoms. There are many species of 
diatoms, typical forms being shown in text figure 2. Diatoms are 
found in more or less abundance in almost all waters, varying greatly 






Fig. 2.- 



-Typical diatoms , which make up a large part of the food of the oyster . Magnified about 500 times. 

( Aiter Moore ) 



in numbers in different places and at different seasons in the same 
place or in the same season of different years. 

Diatoms derive their sustenance from the various organic mate- 
rials washed down from the land and held in solution in the water. 
These organic fertilizers consist of decayed and decaying vegetable 
and animal matter gathered, up from the land by the water result- 
ing from rains and carried down streams and rivers to the sea. The 
food supply of oysters is thus directly affected by the character of 
the soil adjoining the tributaries leading to the water over the beds, 
by the kind and amount of forest or other vegetation and animal 
life on that soil, by the industries carried on there, and by the amount 
and seasons of rainfall. 

While a large portion of the food of the oyster is made up of 
diatoms, considerable numbers of microscopic animal forms are 



20 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

also eaten. The recent work of Dr. T. C. Nelson a shows that a 
larger proportion of the oyster's food is of this nature than was 
formerly supposed. Copepods, or ' 'water-fleas/' the free-swimming 
larva? of snails and bivalves (including the oyster), worms, rotifers, 
and protozoa have been found in the stomach of the oyster. These 
animals, like the plants, are found in greater or less abundance in 
all waters. A systematic effort to ascertain the food content avail- 
able for oysters in any particular water should include the determi- 
nation of the quantities of the suitable animal as well as plant forms 
present. 

Dr. Nelson kept under observation a number of oysters in water 
shallow enough for a system of wires and levers to be connected 
with the shells in such a way that the opening and closing of the 
valves were recorded on a revolving smoked drum or chimograph 
in the floating laboratory above. It was found that, during the 
summer months at least, the oysters remained open, and conse- 
quently feeding, for 19 to 20 hours out of 24. Feeding is thus evi- 
dently a fairly continuous process during the warmer months. 

Organic detritus or debris resulting from the decay and disintegra- 
tion of plant and animal life undoubtedly contributes to the food 
of the oyster. As the diatoms and other plant forms become broken 
up some of their fragments are ingested by the oyster, and a certain 
amount of nutriment is derived therefrom. After death, animal 
forms disintegrate and release fats, albumens, etc., into the water. 
It has been found that the fresh-water mussel may make use of 
such products, and probably the same is true in the case of the 
oyster. 

NATURAL BEDS, ° 

DEVELOPMENT AND DESCRIPTION. 

A natural oyster bed is an area of the bottom on which oysters 
have become established without the voluntary and intentional 
agency of man. In law, the term is usually held to include only 
such bottoms as bear oysters in sufficient quantities to make fishing 
for them by legitimate methods a means of reasonable livelihood 
or areas which have formerly been such and whose present char- 
acter indicates a reasonable likelihood that they may again become 
productive. The only difference between natural and artificial 
beds lies in the fact that the latter originate by the intentional act 
of man, whereas the former arise from natural conditions purely, 
from accident, or from unintentional human agency incidental to 
other works and purposes. In most cases the natural beds, and 
especially the larger ones, have been produced by the operation of 
factors in which man has no part, and we know nothing of their 
origin. In a few instances, small beds have been caused by ship- 
wrecks and other accidents; but on the other hand there are many 
beds, some of them very productive, which have grown on ashes 
and similar material thrown overboard from vessels and upon shells 
culled from the live oysters by oystermen and strewn at random 
over the bottom. Whatever their origins, all oyster beds, if left to 

a Nelson, T. C Forthcoming report, N. J. Agricultural College Experiment Station. 
b Moore, H. F. Proposed revision of '• ' >ysters and Methods of Oyster Culture" (1897). 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 21 

themselves will assume the same general physical and biological 
characters in so far as their environments permit. 

The natural beds of the Atlantic and Gulf coast practically all lie 
like islands in a sea of mud more or less soft. In some places the 
oysters are in clusters rooted in the mud, in others the substratum is 
hard to a greater or less depth, but examination will show that this 
hardness is in most cases superficial, and below it lies mud of a con- 
sistency corresponding to that which surrounds the bed. There are 
a few beds which have grown on rocky bottom, and there is a larger 
number lying on firm, unshifting sand; but there are few rocky out- 
crops on the coast south of New England, and most sandy areas tend 
to shift more or less and engulf such oysters and shells as may be 
lying on them. The oyster is an inhabitant, par excellence, of- the 
muddy bays, sounds, and lagoons, and in them attains its best 
development. 

In tracing the history of any oyster bed, reference must be made 
to the nature and characteristics of the young oyster as it develops 
from the egg. As has been explained on page 13 the embryo oyster 
is a minute organism endowed with certain feeble powers of locomo- 
tion, which are sufficient for awhile to keep it suspended in the* water 
and permit its being carried by the currents. In some cases it may 
be carried several miles from its parents before the setting stage is 
attained. The chances are many that when this happens it will lodge 
on mud and end its story, for so small is the larva at this stage that 
a mere film of ooze suffices to stifle it. If, however, by rare good 
fortune it, at this time or just before, comes into contact with a shell, 
pebble, twig, rocky ridge, or other clean body, whether at the bottom 
or not, it speedily attaches itself and continues its growth. 

So abundant is the supply of larva? in any prolific oyster region 
that ordinarily several or many will attach to each square inch of 
clean surface, and a shell may furnish attachment for a hundred or 
more. Under such circumstances there soon begins a struggle for 
existence that is none the less rigorous for being purely passive. As 
the young oysters grow there is not room for all, and the more vigor- 
ous ones, themselves distorted by the crowding, overgrow, stifle, 
starve, and eventually kill those of slower growth or less advanta- 
geously situated. At the end of the first year there has developed a 
cluster of perhaps from two to a dozen young oysters growing on the 
original shell, all projecting upward and crowding one another into 
long, narrow shapes. Upon the projecting mouths of these shells 
there is another set of spat on the succeeding year, and as this grows 
some of the survivors of the earlier generation are in their turn 
crowded and killed. The result of this is that in the course of a few 
years there is formed a cluster like an inverted pyramid with its apex 
being gradually driven into the mud by the increasing weight above, 
while its broad base is made up of several generations of living oysters 
attached to the dead shells which constitute the middle parts. The 
oysters around the edge where they have room to grow are often of 
fair shape and quality, while those more centrally located are irreg- 
ular, long, narrow, and usually poor, owing to their crowded condition 
and difficulty in obtaining food. 

From the decay of the hinge ligaments of the dead valves, the cor- 
roding effect of boring animals, and the solvent action of seawater on 
the limy shells, these top-heavy clusters tend to break up under their 



22 THE OYSTEE AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

own weight and under the force of the waves. On hard bottom the 
disintegrated parts are rolled about and more or less evenly distrib- 
uted, resulting eventually in the production of other similar clusters 
scattered at intervals. On soft mud the shells can not roll so readily, 
and they fall and remain close to the base of the original cluster, 
where, if not completely engulfed, they form places of attachment for 
new generations. If the mud be very soft they sink for a short dis- 
tance and accumulate until they harden the bottom and form a firm 
support for the shells which fall later, and which in turn are covered 
with a growth of young. 

As these phenomena recur year after year the original single cluster 
gradually extends around its edges now more or less at the top until 
it becomes converted into a little bed composed of a dense mass of 
clusters, with its boundaries sharply defined and limited by the soft 
mud surrounding it. A number of other clusters have probably been 
growing simultaneously on the same muddy bottom, and, the areas 
between becoming narrowed and obliterated, there results a great 
flat bed made up of a number of smaller patches separated by a 
muddy network. Where a deep, muddy channel occurs the oyster 
growtk usually stops near the edge of the slope, the shells which would 
else serve as clutch sinking down into the deep soft ooze. Opposite 
the mouths of smaller streams, even where there is no such deep chan- 
nel, the oyster growth is also inhibited, partly by the freshness of the 
water, but principally and often entirely by the deposit of silt which 
soon spreads its thin coating over everything lying on the bottom. 
In some cases the beds may be completely interrupted, but in others 
they are continuous in their offshore part, passing by and inclosing 
the unfavorable area as an oval or subtriangular barren, muddy patch 
surrounded, excepting on its shoreward side, by productive oyster 
bottom. 

It is difficult to say what may have been the condition of the nat- 
ural beds in Chesapeake Bay before they were disturbed by man, but 
at the present time they are essentially in the condition so far de- 
scribed, though with their boundaries often ill-defined and the clusters 
usually smaller and less dense as a result of tonging and dredging. 
They usually exhibit no great depth of shells, though the bottom is 
more or less hardened by their accumulation in the underlying mud. 
They usually extend alongshore, their greatest length in the direction 
of the currents and their width extending from a couple of feet below 
low water toward, and often to, the edge of the deep, muddy 
channels. 

In South Carolina and adjacent regions the beds are of essentially 
the same type, excepting that they are smaller and narrower, and 
particularly that they are crowded closer to the shores and almost 
entirely confined to the area between high and low water, a situation 
impossible in Chesapeake Bay and more northern regions, owing to 
the killing cold of winter. 

Further development in the history of natural oyster beds beyond 
the stage which has been described results in a gradual thickening of 
the deposit of shells and the production of a short reef or lump, with 
a more or less distinct shoaling of water over it3 top. The living 
oysters standing vertically in the dense mass, with their growing tips 
directed upward and kept clean by the currents, present the only- 
available place for spat fixation. Eaeh year the set occurs on preeed- 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 23 

ing generations, raising the living parts of the bed higher above the 
bottom, while the interstices beneath become filled with old shells, 
fragments, sand, and mud to form a compact mass. Eventually, in 
shallow water, the living oysters approach low-water mark or in some 
parts of the coast rise above it, where their progress is arrested by 
cold or long periods of exposure to the air. 

Each year a set may occur only to be killed in whiter, the dead 
shells, fragments, sand, and mud piling up under wave action, until 
the crest may become raised to a level several feet above high water, 
producing a shell island usually surrounded by a more or less dense 
growth oi live oysters. Such islands are not uncommon in the South 
Atlantic and Gulf States, and they frequently accumulate in time a 
growth of grass and brush, which more or less obscures their true 
character. Sometimes the material is thrown up around their edges 
atoll-like, leaving a depression in the middle in which muddy deposits 
collect and support a growth of brush. In places where the bottom 
is composed of very soft mud the sides of these lumps are compara- 
tively steep and soundings will change 1 or 2 feet within a few yards, 
the difference being due to the depth of shells and oysters. 

In open waters, not especially subject to freshets, where the cur- 
rents^ are moderate and the silt carried not excessive, such lumps 
tend to maintain a round or oval outline, with no great difference 
between the long and short diameters; but where the currents are 
rapid or the bodies of water constricted, there, as soon as they rear 
themselves well above the bottom, they show a strong tendency to 
grow transversely to the tides, especially if the water be silt-laden. 
Such long, narrow reefs are common in the rivers of North Carolina 
and in the bays and rivers of Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. 
In James River, Va., and probably in other rivers of the Chesapeake 
region, the beds, while often showing then- greatest extent in the 
direction of the current, usually have their shoalest parts trans- 
versely to it or are made up of a series of transverse shoals and ridges 
composed of a dense mass of shells and fragments. 

The reasons for this transverse development are as follows: The 
upgrowing reefs form partial dams or obstructions to the flow of the 
currents, and, in accordance with well-known laws, cause eddies or 
backwaters on both the side presented to the current and on that 
sheltered from it, in tidal waters the two being periodically reversed 
with the reversal of the tide. When the velocity of a silt-laden stream 
is checked, it deposits part of its load in the slack water, and, under 
the conditions stated above, mud falls on the upper and lower sides 
of the reef, while the somewhat accelerated flow around the ends 
scours the shells and keeps them clean and fit to receive fresh sets of 
young oysters. These factors operate more energetically the more 
heavily silt-laden the water, and they would become nonoperative in 
perfectly clear water. Not only does heavily silt-laden water deposit 
more mud when its velocity is checked, but it scours more energet- 
ically when its velocity is accelerated, the particles of sand and other 
materials carried in suspension, acting as so many small brushes to 
rub off such materials as may have previously lodged. The greater 
volume of water passmg the ends of the reef has. still two other 
effects — it brings a large number of swimming larvse in contact with 
the shells and it carries more food to the oysters living there. Clean 
cultch, abundant larva?, and ample food, three principal factors in 



24 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

heavy production and rapid growth of oysters, are, therefore, found 
better fulfilled at the ends of the reef than at the sides lying across 
the currents. This tendency to transverse growth once established 
is increased with every increase in the length of the reef, the jetty 
effect, retarding the flow of water in one place and accelerating it in 
another, becoming more pronounced. 

It frequently happens that reefs similar in general character to 
those just described begin then development from or close to the 
shore, usually at projecting points. They grow, of course, principally 
at their outer ends and extend outward from the shore at right angles 
to the current, maintaining a nearly uniform width throughout their 
length. 

In the foregoing description of natural beds consideration has been 
given solely to the oyster itself, but the conditions are always com- 
plicated by the presence of other organisms between which and the 
oyster there are more or less complex biological relations. Some of 
the minute forms, especially the plants, constitute the oyster food, 
while many of the larger species either prey actively on the oyster or 
its young or compete with it in the struggle for food, oxygen, and 
space in which to grow. 

DEPLETION. 

Until the last 40 years the majority of the oysters taken from Cape 
Cod to Mexico came from natural oyster beds which covered an area 
of such great extent that they were regarded as inexhaustible. That 
this belief is quite erroneous is shown by the fact that on the northern 
parts of the coast, where the temperature is about the minimum for 
the support of oysters, the natural beds have disappeared or have 
become sadly depleted. Those of Massachusetts are greatly ex- 
hausted, and few are found hi Narragansett Bay. On the Connecticut 
coast only two beds of importance remain — one in the mouth of New 
Haven Harbor and one west of Stratford Lighthouse, near Bridgeport. 
There are very few in New York waters. Many of the beds of 
Chesapeake Bay are seriously or quite depleted, although many still 
remain. From that point southward the depletion has not been 
nearly so great, as the oyster fishery has not been pursued as vig- 
orously and the environment has been such that the oyster repro- 
duced much more abundantly than in the north, where a failure to 
obtain set is only too common. 

In some cases the depletion or destruction of natural beds is the 
result of natural causes, such as the cutting off of the inlet to a bay 
or soimd and the reduction of the salinity of the water; the covering 
of the beds with silt, debris, and fresh water during a freshet; the 
shifting of sand or mud by storms; or the inroads of living enemies. 

The greatest enemy to the oyster, however, is man. Most of the 
depleted condition of the natural oyster beds is the result of careless 
overfishing by oystermen. The beds are stripped clown so completely 
that not enough adult oysters are left to furnish sufficient spawn to 
insure a subsequent crop. Although millions of eggs and sperma- 
tozoa are produced, those products are thrown into the water, where 
many of the eggs fail of fertilization ; many eggs and larvse die or are 
eaten by enemies; and many fall at setting time on soft bottoms 
and are smothered. The percentage that finally reaches the adult 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 25 

stage is relatively small. For that reason too complete removal of 
the adult oysters from a bed destroys hope for an ensuing generation. 
During the past 40 years certain methods of oyster culture have 
been developed, especially in certain regions, whereby new beds have 
been built up and a constructive system of increasing the oyster 
supply has been initiated in addition to the negative one of restric- 
tions on fishing, such as close seasons and the like. Biologists have 
become concerned in this work, and efforts have been made to pro- 
mote, by experimentation, methods for the improvement of oyster 
culture. 

CULTIVATION. 

From the table on page 5 it will be seen that about half the 
oysters produced in the United States are taken from private or 
planted beds, the rest coming from natural or uncultivated areas. 
It will also be noted that in New England over 90 per cent of the 
oysters are produced on planted beds, that in the Middle Atlantic 
States the natural beds are considerably in excess, and that in the 
South Atlantic and Gulf States the proportion of natural beds is 
much higher yet. The table shows, however, that the value of the 
oysters from the planted beds is nearly twice that of those from the 
natural. This is due largely to the better quality and shape of the 
oysters produced by cultivation. 

It is intended mainly to set forth here the methods of oyster culture 
which so far have proved to be commercially successful on the 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts, together with such suggestions concerning 
their improvement as biological science has to offer. Since there yet 
occasionally arise false hopes that the so-called artificial propaga- 
tion, or the hatching and rearing of oysters in tanks or ponds, as is 
done in the case of fish, is on the verge of practical accomplishment, 
it may be well to dispose of this matter before proceeding to the 
treatment of the successful methods mentioned above. 

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION. 

This attempted method of oyster culture can be treated most 
simply by stating that its perfection and practical application are 
substantially no nearer solution than when the problem was opened 
up by Brooks (1880, pp. 10 to 18). He succeeded in artificially 
fertilizing the oyster eggs with spermatozoa of the male oyster and 
in rearing some free-swimming larvse to the age of four or five days. 
Brooks's methods are in themselves not difficult, and the experiment 
has been repeated time and again both by biologists and laymen. 
Owing, however, to the immense practical difficulties of restraining 
the microscopic larvse in receptacles or tanks and at the same time 
providing for a change of water and the introduction of the proper 
food and removal of waste, no one has succeeded in rearing many 
of the larvse until they attach to cultch. It would seem, moreover, 
impossible to do this on a scale sufficiently large to be of practical 
application in the oyster industry. 

The same statements are true regarding the adaptation of this 
method, in which attempts were made to substitute for the tanks 
ponds connected by narrow inlets or ditches with tidewater. While 



26 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

elaborate designs have been constructed for the manipulation of 
such ponds and the catching of set on cultch placed in the ponds 
or the connecting ditches, none has proved to be of any practical 
value whatever. The principal difficulty seems to have been that, 
in the effort to confine the set to the pond, too scanty an inlet was 
provided for the entrance and exit of the tide, and the oysters suffered 
in consequence. In the cases where efforts were made to catch the 
set on cultch placed along the connecting canal, if the latter were 
broad enough to allow sufficient rush of water to keep the cultch 
clean, most of the set passed out to sea. 

Oysters, on the other hand, will reproduce, grow, and fatten in 
ponds or inlets to which the tide has access in sufficient volume to 
render the water properly saline, provide the requisite food, and 
remove the debris. The set from such oysters is at the mercy of 
the tide; some may be caught in the pond or inlet, and some will 
be carried outside. In France ponds or "claires" are profitably 
maintained for the growth and fattening of oysters. The seed 
oysters placed therein consist of set from outside oyster beds which 
has been caught on collectors placed in the water along the beach. 

While it can not be said that the problem of so-called artificial 
propagation may not be solved at some future time, for the present 
it must be emphasized that oyster culturists should base no false 
hopes on the practical application of this method. 

In view of the barren results of 40 years' experiments in this line, 
it is best to devote attention to the amplification and perfection of 
methods which have proved to have a certain measure of success 
and which are applicable to the industry as carried out on such a 
vast scale in the United States. 

LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

PROCURING GROUND. 

In order to carry on oyster culture either by catching set or plant- 
ing seed oysters, it must first be ascertained whether ground for that 
purpose can be leased or otherwise obtained from the State and, 
if so leased, whether public sentiment is such that the laws will be 
respected and enforced. In some States ample provision is made 
for the rental of oyster grounds and the lessee is protected. Oysters 
are not taken from his beds any more than corn is taken from a 
man's cornfield. In other States conditions have been in the past 
such that protection of leased ground, if attempted at all,' was an 
absolute failure. Considerable improvement is noted, however, in 
this respect within recent years. 

- In selection of ground for locating oyster beds care must be exer- 
cised to avoid waters into which trade wastes are discharged in 
quantities sufficient to kill either the free-swimming larva? or the 
oyster after it has set. It has been found that certain trade wastes 
from factories are injurious to oysters if present above certain con- 
centrations. Further, the Federal and State health laws must be 
borne in mind in order to avoid grounds condemned by health 
authorities because of pollution by sewage. Stringent laws forbid 
the use of such grounds for raising or fattening oysters. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 27 



MARKING BEDS. 



Some States employ competent surveyors, and oyster beds are 
laid out with the aid of ranges, such as important natural objects 
or special signals set for the purpose. The planters then place stakes 
or buoys along these lines in such a way that each man knows exactly 
where his boundary line lies. Such practice is to be highly recom- 
mended as tending to avoid disputes and litigation. 

METHODS OF OYSTER CULTURE. 

Owing to the great size of the oyster beds, to the large number of 
oysters handled, and to the high price of labor and the relatively 
low price of the product, it is not practicable in the United States 
to use the intensive methods of oyster culture employed in European 
countries, such as France, or in Japan. In those countries, special 
devices are used for catching the oyster spat and the individual 
oysters are removed by hand from the collectors and placed on 
specially prepared bottoms or in ponds for growth and fattening. 
In the United States, oyster cultivation, in general, is limited to 
operations which can be carried on by mechanical means on a fairly 
large scale over areas of considerable size, thousands of bushels of 
oysters being involved. 

Oyster culture in the United States involves two main methods, 
the catching of spat, or "set," on artificially placed cultch and the 
planting of "seed" oysters. Where oyster culture is practiced one 
or the other or both of these processes is carried on, depending on 
the region and the desires of the planter. 

CATCHING OF SPAT, OB, "SET." 

As stated previously, for some days after hatching the young or 
larval oyster is free-swimming. At the close of that period, it 
becomes attached to some fairly smooth, hard surface in the water, 
usually rocks, shells, etc., on the bottom. Once fixed, it is there for 
lif and never wanders but proceeds to develop and grow. Failing 
to make such an attachment, it dies. Both while free-swimming and 
for a time after fixation the oyster larva? are referred to by oystermen 
as "set." 

Advantage is taken of this habit of the oyster larvae, and artificial 
means are employed to increase the area of suitable surface upon 
which to "catch a set" of young oysters. Various sorts of material 
are put down to provide a suitable surface upon which the set may 
become attached. The material used for such a purpose is known as 
cultch. The most commonly used cultch is oyster shells, although 
the light thin shells of other bivalves, especially the "jingle" shells, 
are sometimes employed. Oyster shells, being available in great 
quantities from the opened oysters, may be returned easily to the 
bottoms, thus providing the cheapest, most abundant, and most 
suitable form of cultch for the large beds cultivated by American 
oyster planters. 

After a set is thus obtained on the shells it may be left there to 
mature into oysters of marketable size, or the shells with the attached 
set may be taken up and shifted to other beds. This is commonly 



28 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

done in the fall after setting occurs, but sometimes set is allowed to 
grow for a year or two and then treated as "seed, " which is discussed 
on page 33. 

This method of oyster culture is more extensively practiced in 
Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, on the southern side of 
Long Island, in New Jersey waters, and in Louisiana than elsewhere. 
The bottoms are cleaned up by dredging from them the old shells, 
debris, etc. This is done in May, after the close of the season. The 
shells are put down during the last half of June or the month of July. 
In Long Island Sound the old rule was to begin " shelling" the day 
after the Fourth of July. In Louisiana the shells are put down in 
June, since the oysters spawn earlier there because of the higher 
temperature of the water. 

For shelling purposes in northern waters, the shells are usually 
loaded upon large scows (PL V, fig. 1) and towed out to the grounds by 
steamers or gasoline boats. Then while the scow is towed slowly 
bark and forth over the beds, the shells are shoveled overboard by 
men on the scow (PL V, fig. 2). If the ground is new and somewhat 
soft, sufficient shells are put down to form a firm coating such that 
the upper layers remain clean and exposed above the mud. In any 
case, enough shells are put down to form a fairly level continuous 
layer over the bottom. 

In northern waters, examination is made about September 1 to 15 
to see whether a set has been obtained. Since many factors — such 
as time of spawning, condition of the cultch, temperature of the 
water, storms, currents, etc. — enter in to affect the setting, this is the 
most critical point in the cultivation of oysters by this method and is 
the one at which the most failures occur. If no set of consequence 
has fixed on the shells, sometimes they are left until the following 
season and "harrowed" just before setting time by dragging over 
them an oyster dredge with the bag removed. This stirs them up 
and cleans them somewhat, so that often a fairly suitable surface is 
provided for the attachment of set. Often, however, they are 
dredged up and heaped upon the ground beside the oyster house. 
Here they dry, any oyster enemies upon them dying in the meantime, 
and may be used over again next season. In case a set (by which the 
oysterman means a sufficient quantity to be of commercial import- 
ance) is found upon the shells, they are either left, in order that 
oysters may develop on that bed, or are shifted to other beds. 

The shifting is accomplished by dredging up the shells, set and all, 
with ordinary oyster dredges or, rarely, by lifting them with tongs. 
Sometimes the oysters are moved after attaining the age of one or 
two years, since growth and fattening proceed more rapidly on some 
beds than on others, due to differences in food content of the water, 
etc. In certain places oysters become green, and their sale is hin- 
dered by the unsightly appearance. When shifted to certain other 
beds, this color is thrown off in the course of a few months and the 
oysters are marketed. 

The planting of cultch to catch set is mainly performed on "bar- 
ren" ground, that is, bottoms practically free from oysters. Such 
ground is leased from the State or purchased outright by the planters. 
Some States make ample provisions for such procedure, and the 
lessee or owner has complete protection for his oysters. In other 
States public sentiment has not supported efforts to provide for leas- 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate IV. 




OYSTER SPAT OR SET TWO OR THREE WEEKS OLD ON INSIDE OF 

OYSTER SHELL. 

Natural size. (After Moore. ) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate V. 




FIG. 1.— LOADING SHELLS ON BOAT FOR PLANTING. 




FIG. 2.— PLANTING OYSTER SHELLS IN LONG ISLAND SOUND IN ORDER TO 

CATCH SET. 

The large scow loads of shells are towed by a gasoline boat or steamer. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 29 

ing of ground for this purpose and dependence is placed largely on 
natural beds for the supply of oysters. 

In some few cases a State plants a limited amount of cultch upon 
certain partially depleted natural beds for public benefit. In gen- 
eral, however, the natural beds are staked off and reserved for general 
public use by the " natural growther" subject to certain restrictions, 
mentioned elsewhere. 

The principal considerations involved in this method of oyster cul- 
ture are character of the cultch, character and preparation of the 
bottom, time for planting cultch, the proper location of cultch beds 
with respect to tides and currents and the spawning oysters, and the 
location of beds of spawning oysters. 

Cultch. — While formerly limited use was made in the United States 
of various forms of cultch — such as tin cans, bits of pottery, brush, 
pebbles, "jingle" shells, and oyster shells — only the last three mate- 
rials have proved to be of practical value, and at the present time the 
cultch used consists almost entirely of oyster shells. A few "jingle" 
shells are known to be employed at one point in Long Island Sound. 
Oyster shells are large and afford surface for the attachment of quan- 
tities of spat (PL IV). As this grows, overcrowding is apt to result, 
since the shells are too heavy to be broken apart by the pressure of 
the developing set. This is overcome by breaking apart and culling 
the clusters thus formed. 

The advantages of oyster shells as cultch consist largely in their 
general adaptability, presenting a smooth surface for the attachment 
of the set, and their abundance and convenience, since an oyster- 
shucking house has only to turn about and convert its shell pile into 
spat collectors by the use of its own boats. At the same time the 
gradual disintegration of the shells provides lime for the succeeding 
generations. 

"Jingle" shells, or silver shells, belonging to the species of Anomia, 
and scallop shells are thinner and more fragile than oyster shells. 
Consequently, they make a superior form of cultch, since the pressure 
of the growing young oysters breaks them apart and the formation of 
clusters is prevented. Unfortunately, the supply of such shells is so 
limited that very few are now used. 

Character and preparation of bottom. — If the bottom at the point 
where it is desired to plant cultch is sufficiently hard to support it a 
layer of shells is spread upon it broadcast, as previously described. 
In case the bottom is soft, it may be prepared by putting down sand 
or gravel, in sufficient quantities to support the shells. Often, how- 
ever, the bottom is stiffened merely by the use of shells. Sufficient 
quantities are put down and allowed to sink, until a substratum is 
formed firm enough to support a layer of cultch several mches or a 
foot thick above the ground. A bed on which cultch has been placed 
for several years in succession will gradually be made firmer by the 
setting of a part of the shells. 

Time for planting >. cultch. — Since sea water always contains more or 
less suspended debris, which gradually settles upon the bottom or any 
object thereon it follows that cultch will more or less rapidly become 
coated with a layer of slime or debris. If this becomes too thick the 
oyster larvse are prevented from setting upon it. Movement of the 
water by tides and currents obviates this difficulty somewhat by 
washing the debris from the cultch. In bodies of water where there 



30 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

is little movement, especially in inclosed bays or the like, the deposit 
accumulates upon the shells rapidly. Such waters, while often very 
desirable for growing or fattening oysters, are for this reason poorly 
adapted to catching set. 

It early became apparent, then, that it would not suffice merely to 
spread the cultch at any season of the year most convenient to the 
planter. Cultch should be put down just as shortly before the bulk 
of the free-swimming larvae reaches setting time as it is possible to 
do it. In general this has been ascertained by experience in the 
various regions where this method is practiced. For example, in 
Great South Bay it is planned to complete " shelling" by July 1 . In 
Long Island Sound shelling often begins immediately after the 
Fourth of July and is completed early in August, individual planters 
having different ideas as to the best time for planting cultch. In 
Louisiana cultch is put down in June. 

In the case of the large oyster firms, owing to the great quantity of 
shells handled, it is impossible to concentrate all the shelling into a 
few days preceding setting time. Such firms often require a month 
or six weeks in which to complete the process. The best that can be 
done is to make this period coincide with the weeks immediately pre- 
ceding setting time. 

The proper time of year for planting the cultch has been fixed ap- 
proximately at certain seasons for each locality, largely by experience 
derived from the results of some years' practice in this method. The 
appearance of the adult spawning oysters is noted at intervals each 
year and the time of planting varied a few days or weeks one way or 
the other. The aim has mainly been to have the cultch down before 
any appreciable quantity of spawn has been thrown out by the oysters. 

It has been thought until relatively recently that the oyster larvae' 
set within 3 or 4 days after the spawn was thrown out. It is now 
known that from 14 to 18 days elapse in New Jersey waters and 
northward, and a somewhat shorter period in the warmer waters of 
the Southern States. With this longer period hi mind, it will be seen 
that the time of setting is at least two weeks subsequent to the throw- 
ing out of the spawn. In case the spawning period is extended over 
several weeks, the problem is complicated. In the more northern 
waters, especially in Long Island Sound, the spawning period has 
been found to be short, hardly more than two weeks in length, the 
bulk of the spawn being thrown out in the course of a few days. In 
such case, keeping hi mind the two weeks free-swimming period of the 
larva?, it is possible to judge the time of putting down cultch quite 
accurately. 

Since seasonal variations affect the time of spawning, it follows 
that no exact date which will hold good for each year can be set 
for planting cultch. As a result of a survey of the free-swimming 
larvae made by the Bureau of Fisheries, it was found that the setting 
time of the bulk of the larvae in Long Island Sound in 1918 occurred 
during the week of August 10 to 17. In 1919 there was no setting' 
time in Long Island Sound, since no larvae developed to setting size, 
owing, doubtless, to the abnormally low temperature of the water. 
In 1919, in Great South Bay, setting began about July 1, but the 
bulk occurred July 15 to 17. These data were secured by following 
the development and movements of the free-swimming larvae bv 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 31 

means of examinations of samples of water of definite volume taken 
in various places from day to day. a 

This method consisted essentially in noting the number and size 
of free-swimming larva? found in samples of water taken daily over 
the oyster beds by pumping 50 gallons through a net or bag of 
No. 20 bolting silk. By the study of a considerable number of 
samples taken each day the general abundance and size of the 
larva? could be ascertained and the setting time predicted several 
days ahead. b As the larvae approach setting time, with the accom- 
panying increase in size, the left valve of the shell becomes very 
prominent, as stated on page 13. This renders them readily dis- 
tinguishable from other bivalve larva?, and it is easy, after a little 
practice, to recognize them under the microscope. 

It would seem that the advent and development of the larva? 
could be noted by this means each season. The State commissions 
could hire a biologist for a month to make the examinations or 
train one of their own members to do the work. The development 
and movement of the larva? could be followed in a few representative 
places in the waters of the State and exact information relative to 
setting time ascertained and imparted to the oyster planters. After 
a few years it would be found that the time varied within certain 
fixed limits, and examinations would need to be made only to learn 
the variation within that period for the particular year. 

Location of cultch beds. — The different 0}^ster planters have deter- 
mined by experience the locations at which beds of cultch are placed. 
After a term of years each* man has found the portion of his ground 
on which cultch may be placed with what seems the most likelihood 
of getting a set. Individual planters have their own views as to 
the proper position of the cultch in relation to the beds of spawning 
oysters. Sometimes beds of cultch and of oysters are placed side 
by side; sometimes several are located alternately. Some planters 
place a certain number of spawning or "mother oysters" about in 
groups on the cultch bed. 

Since the free-swimming larva? are carried about by the tides and 
currents, it becomes of importance to follow in each locality the 
movements of the larva? in order to ascertain as nearly as possible 
the place in which they will set. This involves a study of the tides 
and currents and the directions in which and the distance to which 
they carry the larva? in any particular bay, cove, or river mouth. 
Accurate knowledge of these facts would enable one to state where 
the cultch should be placed in relation to the spawning oysters. 
Since the tides and currents depend on the contour of the bottoms 
and coasts, they are the same from year to year, unless disturbed 
by storm. The data, once accumulated by perhaps two or three 
years' study, would have permanent value. 

Investigations calculated to ascertain the advantages of such 
knowledge of the movements and points of aggregation of the free- 
swimming larva? were carried on in 1919 by the United States Bureau 
of Fisheries, using Great 'South Bay, Long Island, as a testing 

a Churchill, E. P. Jr., and Gutsell, J. S. Reports on Investigation of Oyster Larvsein Longlsland 
Sound, 1918 and 1919, and Investigation of Oyster Larvge of Great South Bay. (Contains methods.) 
Forthcoming reports, U. S. Bureau of fisheries. 

b Dr. T. C. Nelson (1916), in his study of the occurrence of free-swimming oyster larva? in Little Egg 
Harbor, N. J., was able to ascertain the relative abundance of the larva? in different areas and to predict 
the setting date about 10 days in advance. 



32 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

ground. a The method of examining samples of water for numbers 
of larvae described on page 31 was employed. It was found to be 
possible to ascertain from day to day during the spawning season, 
lasting, roughly, from June 5 to July 17, the number of larvae per 
gallon of water at various representative stations in the bay. In 
this way the points of aggregation of the greatest numbers of larvae 
were determined and charted on the map. Beds of shells had been 
placed at various points in the bay. The quantity of set caught on 
the different beds substantiated predictions based on the data 
derived from the study. The heaviest set was obtained from the 
beds located at the points in the bay where there had been the 
greatest accumulation of larvae. To be specific, it was found that 
the tide caused the larvae to accumulate along the channel from 
about Ocean Beach on Fire Island Beach to the inner United States 
channel buoy, in the direction of Sayville, Long Island. Cultch beds 
should be placed along this channel where the bottom is or may be 
made suitable. 

By the use of methods such as just described the distribution of 
oyster larvae could be worked out for any particular region. The 
possibilities of this procedure have been discussed above in connec- 
tion with the recommendation that such lines of investigation be under- 
taken for the various oyster waters, perhaps by State authorities. 

Location of svauming beds. — Of tentimes the catching of set depends 
as much on the location of the spawning oysters as on the position 
of the cultch. Both are important, and sometimes the best results 
can be accomplished only by the providing of the proper relationship 
between the two. Spawning beds should be placed where conditions 
are most favorable for spawning, at the same time putting the cultch 
at a point where the larvae from the bed will be carried back and forth 
across it by the tides or be accumulated over it by eddies or cross 
currents. 

For example, in Great South Bay, Long Island, which is large and 
shallow, the oysters are placed about over the bay at various points 
where they grow and fatten best, the catching of set from them being 
a matter of rather secondary importance in this locality. As a 
matter of fact one place is as favorable as another for the spawning 
of the oysters, the bay being of fairly uniform depth and salinity. 
As stated above, the larvae accumulate in the channel, and cultch 
should be placed there. 

In Long Island Sound a different condition prevails. The catching 
of set has been a large feature of the oyster industry there. Cultch 
beds were planted at greater or lesser distances offshore or in the 
lower part of the mouths of rivers. Owing to a recent failure of the 
set there, investigations have been made by the United States 
Bureau of Fisheries during 1917, 1918, and 1919. It has been found 
that in the past the bulk of the set consisted of larvae from natural 
oyster beds in the shallow waters of bays, coves, and river mouths, 
where the water became warm relatively early in the season and 
the spawning occurred early enough for- the larvae, carried out by 
the currents to shell beds in deeper waters, to develop, set, and 
acquire a fair size before the close of the short summer season 

c Churchill, E. P. Jr., and Outsell, J. S. Investigation of Oyster Larvae in Great South Bay. Forth- 
coming report, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 33 

of that locality. These inshore beds are practically exhausted now, 
and dependence is being placed for set upon the oysters planted in 
deeper water offshore. . The deeper water warms up slowly, and the 
oysters spawn so late that the crest of the warm season is over 
before setting occurs and very little set is obtained from them. In ' 
Long Island Sound spawning beds should be placed in the shallow 
inshore waters to take the place of the original natural beds. Cultch 
beds should be placed where they have been heretofore, outside or 
in the lower part of the mouths of rivers outside or alongside the 
oyster beds. 

In this connection, as stated earlier, the fact that certain waters 
are contaminated with factory trade wastes must be borne in mind. 
It has been found that the upper waters of certain harbors in Long 
Island Sound contain such a concentration of trade wastes that 
oyster larvae are at once killed by it. No adult oysters are now 
found in such waters. As these wastes are carried out nearer to 
the mouths of the harbors they are diluted and are at least not so 
immediately fatal to the oysters, but ultimately the effect is cer- 
tainly harmful.. Some of the wastes also probably contribute to 
the green discoloration of the meats of oysters found in certain beds. 
Vigorous efforts should be made to require the reclamation of trade 
wastes by the factories and to prevent their discharge into waters 
otherwise fitted for the maintenance of sea-foods. 

General desirability of planting cultch. — The method of oyster 
culture by means of catching set on planted cultch is the most 
promising one at present. Small seed oysters may be placed on 
bottoms where, due to improved conditions, they will grow faster, 
acquire a more desirable shape, and thus bring a better price. But 
by putting down cultch in places where there was none before set 
may be caught which otherwise would have perished. By this 
method the actual number of oysters in increased. This method 
should be developed further in some such manner as suggested above 
and brought into more general use. 

At several points on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts no cultch is 
planted, the shells being burned for lime or used in building roads. 
In some of these places the oyster beds are becoming seriously 
depleted. This is especially true of Chesapeake Bay. Investiga- 
tions carried on there by the United States Bureau of Fisheries 
during 1019 showed that, while there were abundant free-swimming 
larvae during the spawning season, the vast majority of these perished 
from lack of cultch upon which, to attach themselves. It would 
seem highly desirable to cease disposing of the shells for lime or road 
building and to clean up the oyster bottoms and plant the shells on 
them to catch set. The general improvement of the oyster beds and 
the consequent increase in revenue from them would far outweigh 
the relatively small amount now received for the shells as at present 
handled. 

PLANTING SEED OYSTERS. 

In the method of oyster culture by planting seed the start is made 
with small or "seed" oysters instead of shells. Such seed oysters 
may vary in size from set of a few months' growth, about the size 
of one's finger nail, to oysters of nearly marketable size in some cases. 

18^698°— 20 3 



34 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

They are usually, however, small oysters attached to old shells or 
other material upon which they originally caught. Sometimes, if 
fairly large, the individual oysters are removed from the old shells 
or the clusters broken up before planting. Seed may be bought or 
taken by the planter from his own or natural beds. 

Very little seed is now taken from Chesapeake Bay and planted in 
Long Island Sound, although the importation of "southern" oysters 
and seed was formerly an extensive practice. The oyster beds of 
Maurice Cove in Delaware Bay are kept up by the planting of seed 
taken from the natural beds in the bay. Seed oysters are planted 
in Chesapeake Bay to some extent and in York River, Va. To a 
lesser extent the planting of seed oysters is carried on in other States. 
In many of the Southern States the clusters of small "coon" oysters 
are broken apart and used for seed. Such coon oysters grow in 
abundance along the shores and naturally are so thickly crowded 
together that they acquire a long, narrow shape and are quite 
indifferent oysters. If the clusters are broken apart and the oysters 
put down on suitable beds when an inch or two long, they grow into 
fair-shaped, marketable oysters in about a year in southern waters. 
Seed oysters are planted at various times of the year, depending on 
the local conditions, in some places in the fall, in others in the spring. 

A number of oystermen make a business of taking shells bearing 
set from natural beds and selling it to the large planters to be placed 
on their leased beds as seed. No shells are planted upon natural 
beds, except by the State in certain cases, the set attaching to shells 
left by the death of adult oysters, or to rocks, debris, etc. The 
material bearing the set is taken from such natural beds by the use 
of tongs (PI. XI) or by light dredges lifted by hand or hand wind- 
lasses on a sailboat (PI. XV, fig. 1). 

In nearly all States it is illegal to use other than a sailing vessel 
on natural beds and in most instances the dredge must be lifted by 
hand or by a hand windlass, although sometimes it is lawful to 
lift the dredge with a donkey engine on deck of a sailing boat. The 
purpose of restrictions on the use of steam and power in dredging 
is to limit dredging on natural beds to the use of the less efficient 
apparatus in order to conserve the supply of oysters. In most 
States such "natural growth" may not be taken from the beds 
during certain of the summer months, the purpose being not to 
disturb the beds during spawning and setting time. 

In northern waters it requires from four to five years for an oyster 
to reach marketable size (a length of from 4 to 5 inches, measmed 
in the shell). In Chesapeake Bay three years is sufficient, while 
in the South marketable size may be attained in two years. Oysters 
grow more rapidly in the warmer waters. 

In oyster culture by the method of planting seed the main con- 
siderations are the kind of seed, character of the. water, food supply, 
bottom, sowing the seed, and caring for the beds. 

Seed. — Seed oysters vary in size from the set just caught that 
season and taken up in the fall, when it is about the size of a finger 
nail, to oysters which will attain marketable size within a few months 
after planting. The majority of the seed, however, is not more than 
H inches long. It is obtained from " natural growthers" who make 
a business, as stated above, of taking seed oysters from natural 
beds and selling them to planters, or by the planter himself gather- 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 35 

ing them directly from the beds. In many places the larger planters 
buy of the " natural growthers", since steam vessels and heavy 
dredges, such as are owned by the large oyster companies, are not 
allowed to work on the natural beds. The "natural growther, " 
with less capital, can afford to maintain a vessel and some hand 
dredges and profitably sell to the large oyster company, which in 
turn obtains seed more cheaply than it could by supporting its own 
sailing vessels and crews. In States where such a system is prac- 
ticed, the natural beds are set aside by the State for the "natural 
growther" with limited capital. 

The material dredged from the natural beds usually contains old 
shells, rocks, and debris, in addition to the oysters. Sometimes the 
whole is bought at a reduced price, but usually the desirable material 
is culled out and the clustered oysters broken apart as far as possible. 

Water. — As a general rule seed oysters should not be obtained 
from warm waters and put down in those excessively colder. If 
this be done, it will usually be found that their growth is checked 
for some time and that a certain percentage die. After a time, 
however, they become accustomed to the reduced temperature and 
renew their growth. 

In general, the warmer the water the more rapid the growth of 
the oysters. This is due both to the greater abundance of food 
material and to the fact that the bodily activities of the oyster 
proceed more rapidly when the organism is warmed to a relatively 
high temperature. 

The density of the water should be between 1.007 and 1.023. 
Although oysters are found both in water of lesser and of greater 
densities, they do best within the limits stated. 

Food. — The character of the food of the oyster is discussed on 
page 19. In order to profit by planting oysters, a sufficient quantity 
of food for them must be assured. Often certain waters and bottoms 
are suitable for catching set on cultch, but do not possess a suffi- 
cient food supply to enable the oysters to grow and fatten rapidly. 
Other grounds furnish an abundant food supply, but the water is so 
loaded with debris that cultch and set are soon covered. Hence in 
many cases cultch beds are placed in waters of the former character, 
and the set is caught and later transferred to waters containing more 
food. 

Care must be exercised not to place more oysters on the ground 
than can be supported by the supply of food present. On the 
average about 500 bushels of seed are sowed per acre. The food 
content of the water varies greatly from place to place and from 
time to time in the same place. It is affected to some extent by 
the amount of material brought from the land by the streams and 
rivers. This again is dependent on the rainfall. As previously 
stated, diatoms make up a considerable part of the oyster's food 
and diatom growth is affected by materials washed down from the 
land. A period of excessive drought causes a falling off in the 
diatom content of the water. 

It would be well if a systematic biological study could be made 
of the food content of the water over prospective oyster grounds. 
In order to do this samples of water of definite amounts should be 
strained through No. 20 silk bolting cloth and the number and 



36 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

amount of food organisms and material ascertained microscopically. 
Estimate is usually made per liter, which is about equal to a quart. 
If it were found from a series of examinations that the food content 
of the water were conspicuously low, it is obvious that the grounds 
in question would not be desirable for the planting of oysters. 

Bottom. — The bottom is cleaned of debris by dredging. If firm 
enough to support the oysters, no further preparation is needed. If 
soft, the surface is hardened by putting down shells, sand, or gravel, 
deposited uniformly so that there are no holes in the surface as finally 
prepared. 

Sowing the seed. — The seed oysters are removed from the original 
bed by the use of tongs or dredges and are planted in much the same 
manner as shells by being shoveled from boats or scows (PL V, fig. 2) 
towed back and forth over the grounds. About 500 bushels per acre 
are usually planted, though the amounts vary widely with local con- 
ditions. The oysters are spread uniformly, so that they may not lie 
in heaps and cause some to fail to receive the proper amount of food 
or to be crowded and thus grow irregularly. 

Care of beds. — The beds are generally left untouched after planting, 
except for combating enemies in some cases (see below) ancl shifting 
certain of the oysters, if desired, to other grounds for final prepara- 
tion for market. The oysters to be shifted or sold directly are taken 
up by the use of tongs and dredges. After the oysters have been 
removed from the beds the grounds are cleaned up by dredging, 
when they may be used again for planting cultch or seed. 

PROTECTION AGAINST ENEMIES. 

The more important enemies of the oyster will be described briefly 
and the methods, if any, of combating each set forth. 

STARFISH. 

There are two species of starfish which may be classed as oyster 
enemies. These are the common star, Asterias forbesi, and the 
purple star, Asterias vulgaris. The starfish opens an oyster by inclos- 
ing it with the arms or rays (PL VI, fig. 1), which are provided with 
rows of suckerlike feet on the lower side, and exerting a constant 
outward pull on the valves of the shell, until the oyster is exhausted 
and the valves are allowed to gape at the ends. The starfish then 
protrudes its stomach from the mouth, which is on the lower side of 
the central disk, inserts it between the valves of the oyster shell, and 
sucks in and digests the meat. The set and 1 and 2 year old oysters 
are more subject to the inroads of the starfish, because of their 
smaller size and weaker adductor muscle; but the larger starfish 
prey on oysters as much as 3 years old. 

In certain waters the starfish are very destructive to oysters, often 
invading and cleaning out a whole bed before the planter is aware 
of their presence. This is true of New England waters and those 
immediately to. the southward. They are unknown in Chesapeake 
Bay and constitute a menace to oysters only in the regions mentioned 
in the preceding sentence. In Narragansett Bay and Long Island 
Sound it has been necessary to fight them very vigorously. 

a This method will suffice to determine the great bulk of the food available in the water and is usually 
sufficient for practical purposes. The material in actual solution in the water, which probably contributes 
only a small percentage of the food of the oyster, can be determined only by chemical analysis. 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate VI. 




FIG. 1.— STARFISH ATTACKING AN OYSTER. 
(Photo from Dr. H. M. Smith.) 




FIG. 2.— PHOTOGRAPH OF OYSTER SHOWING THE TURBELLARIAN WORM 
KNOWN AS THE WAFER OR "LEECH." 

The worm has fastened itself upon the oyster and appears as a dark wrinkled body in about 
the center of the oyster meat. Natural size. (After Danglade.) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate VII. 




FIG. 1.— USUAL STYLE OF "STAR MOP" USED FOR EXTERMINATING STARFISH 
IN LONG ISLAND SOUND. 

The stars become entangled in the brushes as they are dragged over the bottom. The mops 
are then raised and plunged into vats of hot water on deck to kill the starfish. 




FIG. 2.— "DISH-PAN" FORM OF STAR MOP, USED IN LONG ISLAND SOUND. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 37 

The only practical method of destroying the starfish so far devised 
is by the use of the "star mop" (PL VII, fig. 1). This usually 
consists of an iron bar about 10 feet long, to which are attached 8 or 
10 large mops or brushes of heavy rope-yarn about 4 feet long. The 
bar moves on small wooden iron-tired wheels as it is dragged over the 
"bottom by a chain attached by three drag bars arranged as shown 
in the figure. The chain passes through a pulley attached to a stout 
post amidships, and the mop is raised and lowered in the same way 
as a dredge. The starfish cling to or become entangled in the mops 
and are brought to the surface when the apparatus is lifted. Two 
mops are usually used, one on each side of the boat. A long narrow 
vat is generally placed inside the gunwale on each side of the boat. 
These vats are kept filled with water which is heated by steam from 
the boiler circulated through pipes in the vats. Each mop with its 
burden of " stars" is dropped into the hot water. This is the most 
rapid and efficient method of killing the starfish and removing them 
from the mops. Sometimes only one vat is used, placed across the 
deck before the cabin, and each mop is swung 
around and lowered into it by means of a small 
crane. 

In Plate VII, figure 2, is shown a special form 
of star mop, the "dishpan," devised for use on a 
rocky bottom. The toboggan-shaped body con- 
sists of two pieces of boiler iron, the larger one 4| 
by 2 feet and attached to the triangular smaller 
one by four rings bolted on as seen in the figure. 
This allows some independence of movement of 
the two parts. The mops are the same as used FlG ; 3 ._ Urosa i V mx dnereus, 
with the other form of apparatus.' This mop the oyster drm of the At- 

,. -. .-, -, -T-r ,., ., ,,J^ lantic coast. iNaturalsize. 

slides over the rocks more readily than the (After Moore.) 
wheeled bar, the brushes falling down between 
the rocks and catching the stars. This style of mop, however, is 
heavy and awkward to handle and is not extensively used. 

" Starring" must be kept up whenever any considerable number of 
the enemy appears and should be of a cooperative nature. It is of 
little avail for a planter to attempt to keep his beds free from starfish, 
unless his neighbor does likewise. 



There are at . least four species of snail-like molluscs known to 
oystermen as drills or screw borers. One of these, Urosalpinx 
cmereus (text fig. 3), attaining a length of about an inch, is found 
abundantly from Massachusetts to the east coast of Florida. The 
eggs are laid in small, yellowish, vase-shaped, leathery capsules,® 
deposited in clusters on objects in the water. Another species is 
Thais lapillus, about the size of the preceding. It is found from the 
east end of Long Island northward. Other species of drills (often 
called borers, snails, whelks, or conchs) are Thais hsemastoma (PL 
VIII, top) and Thais hsemastoma jloridana. These sometimes reach 
a length of 3 inches. They are found on the Gulf coast, where 
they are often very destructive to oyster beds. The eggs are laid 
in tubular capsules about a half inch long, attached by the ends to 

a Moore, H. F. Proposed revision of "Oysters and Methods of Oyster Culture" (1897). 




38 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



shells and other objects in the water (PL VIII, center). Masses of 
these capsules are often found covering oyster shells so thickly that 
there is danger of smothering the oysters. From their reddish- 
purple color these masses are often referred to as "red grass. '' 

The various species of drill possess a rasplike apparatus which 
can be protruded from the mouth. With this they bore a hole 
through the shell of the oyster (PI. VIII, bottom) and suck out the 
contents. Drills destroy many young oysters, their thin shells 
being relatively easily penetrated. After the oyster becomes older 
its shell is heavy enough to resist the effort of the drill. 

In Long Island Sound it has been found that about the most 
practical method of lessening the numbers of this enemy is the 
following: The teeth are removed from an ordinary oyster dredge, 
and a bag with meshes of an inch or less is put on in place of 
the usual coarser one. After the oysters have been taken off 
the bed for market or shifting, the specially equipped dredge is 
used and everything left — shells, drills, debris, etc. — is dredged up 





Fig. i.—Pogonias cromis, or drum fish. At times this fish destroys large numbers of oysters. (After 

Jordan and Eyermann.) 

and dumped ashore to dry. The drills die, and a good deal of the 
material may then be used as cultch. 

DRUMFISH. 

The fish known as the "black drum," Pogonias cromis (text fig. 4), 
is found at intervals of time and place from New Jersey to Texas and 
is often very destructive to oyster beds. It attains a length of 
several feet and has a heavy body with large stout teeth. The 
oysters are crushed, shell and all, by these strong teeth, the younger 
thin-shelled ones being, of course, especially subject to the depre- 
dations of the drumfish. These fish go in schools and their attacks 
are spasmodic, often whole oyster beds being cleaned out in a short 
time and then, again, no drumfish being seen for several months 
or years. 

Efforts have been made to kill or frighten away such fish by the 
explosion of dynamite, but no particular success has been achieved. 
In southern waters, especially in Louisiana, where oyster beds lie 
in shallow water and there is not much tide, it has been found practi- 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate VIII. 




TOP, BORERS OR " DRILLS " (THAIS HAEMASTOMA) OF THE GULF COAST; 
CENTER, SO-CALLED "RED GRASS," THE EGG CASES OF THE BORERS; 
BOTTOM, OYSTER SPAT DRILLED BY BORERS. 

Natural size. (After Moore and Pope.) 






U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate IX. 




CONCHS. TOP, CHANNELLED CONCH OR WHELK, BUSYCON CANALICULATUM ; 
CENTER, STRING OF CAPSULES CONTAINING EGGS OF KNOBBED CONCH; 
BOTTOM, KNOBBED CONCH OR WHELK, BUSYCON CARICA. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



39 



cable to fence the beds with chicken wire strung on posts set in the 
bottom. 



This is also a snail-like mollusc, comprising several species, some 
of which attain a length of from 5 to 6 inches. Busycon carica and 
Busycon canaliculatum (PI. IX) are the most common. The eggs 
are deposited in flat parchmentlike capsules about an inch in diameter 
and strung together by a cord along the side to form a loosely spiral 
chain a foot to a foot and a half in length. This is cast free from 
the animal and left to the mercy of the waves. It has been found* 
that the conch opens an oyster by insert- 
ing the edges of its own shell between 
the valves of the oyster when it gapes 
(text fig. 5) and then introducing its 
proboscis and eating the meat. Conchs 
do not occur, however, in sufficient quan- 
tities to destroy many oysters. No defi- 
nite means of combating them are 
employed, although those taken when 
dredging are usually killed. 




Mussels, the common edible species, 
Mytilus edulis, and other species, of the 
Atlantic waters, and Mytilus hamatus 
(PI. X, fig. 1) , of the Gulf coast, are bi- 
valves which, shortly after hatching from 
the egg, attach themselves to material 
on the bottom by a slender thread or 
hair called the byssus. As development 
goes on the number of hairs is multi- 
plied and they become shorter and 
stouter until the adult mussel at a ^t^SSSS^SS&^ISS^JS^ 
length oi 4 or 5 inches, is very firmly 

attached by these threads. The mussels multiply rapidly, and 
dense beds are sometimes formed over the oysters, tending to smother 
the latter. Since the mussels feed upon essentially the same materials 
as do the oysters, there is always danger of a greater or less exhaus- 
tion of the food supply. 

In Long Island Sound the mussel is attacked in the following 
manner: The mussel spawns and "sets" — that is, attaches by the 
byssus — perhaps a month or more before the oyster. Advantage 
is taken of this fact, and when evidences are found of an alarming 
number of young mussels on the oyster beds, they are " harrowed" 
by dragging over them an ordinary dredge with the bag removed 
or open at the back. This process crushes and destroys the majority 
of the tiny mussels without injury to the adult oysters. If this 
process is carried out on a bed planted with shells to catch a set, 
no harm is done, as the oysters have not yet spawned, and there is 
consequently no oyster set on the shells. 



i Colton, H. S. How Fulgur and Sycotypus eat Oysters, Mussels, and Clams. Proceedings, Academy 
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Vol. LX, 1908, pp. 3-10, 5 pis. Philadelphia. 



40 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



BORING SPONGE. 



Boring sponge (Cliona celata) is the term applied to a yellow 
sponge which begins its existence by boring (PI. XXI, lower left 
figure) in the shell of the oyster, where it forms small tunnels, in 
which it lives. The shell is gradually honeycombed, and the oyster 
becomes weak and thin from the effort to seal up the openings where 
the tunnels penetrate the shell completely. The sponge also spreads 
over the outside of the shell and often smothers the oyster by its 
very size. No means of protection against the sponge can be sug- 
gested, but fortunately it does not occur in sufficient numbers in 
most regions to prove a serious menace. 

BORING CLAM. 

The boring clam (Martesia cuneiformis , M. smitJiii, and M. cor- 
ticaria) is a species of clam which enters the shell of the oyster 
by boring a small round hole and excavating in the substance of 
the shell, at the inner end of the hole, a hemispherical cavity 
(PI. X, fig. 2) in which it then spends its life, often attaining a length 
of three-eighths of an inch. The clam usually does not penetrate 
the shell entirely and does not feed upon the oyster. It attains its 
food through the external opening. It does comparatively little 
damage to. the oyster. 

WAFER OR "LEECH." 

This is a turbellarian worm (PI. VI, fig. 2) of undetermined species 
which on several occasions has destroyed large numbers of 0} T sters in 
the vicinity of Cedar Keys, Port Inglis, and Tampa, Pla. This worm 
is nearly flat, more or less circular in outline, and is about three- 
fourths of an inch long. It finds its way between the valves of the 
oyster and feeds upon the meat, eventually killing the oyster. It 
flourishes in water of fairly high salinity, and its ravages are checked 
by lowered temperatures. No method of combating it can be 
suggested other than a careful working of the beds and the use of 
new air-dried cultch and fresh seed stock. 

TAKING OYSTERS FROM THE BEDS. 

Oysters are commonly taken by the use of hand tongs, patent 
tongs, dredges lifted by hand or hand windlasses, or dredges raised 
by engines or hoisters turned by the engine of the boat. These forms 
of apparatus and the boats on which they are used are described 
below. 

TONGS. 

Ordinary hand oyster tongs are shown in Plate XI, figures 1 and 2. 
There are two long, flat, smooth, wooden handles about 3 inches wide 
and nearly 1 inch thick, bolted, riveted, or pinned together with a 
wooden pin, scissors fashion, about 4 t feet from one end (see figures), 
leaving the long ends for handles. To tne short end of each shaft is 
secured at right angles a light iron bar, about 3^ feet long, bearing 
teeth, while above this bar are five or six still lighter bars or heavy 
wires parallel to the bar and attached to the shaft. The ends of the 
bars or wires are fastened together by short wires. The arrange- 



U. S. B. R— Doc. 



PLATE X. 




FIG. 1.— MASS OF MUSSELS ATTACHED TO OYSTERS. 
(After Moore.) 





^Frr 




P&^^sss 


^P^^^f- 




W#r. ■ ^s^vTm^B 


^^^^5*^!•»V' , 




wKw- f ^T' :: ''' ^ ■ ■:.: , - : ^jfife : '-'^Hffi. ,«^| 


^^^^^Sr^~''' ' 




BjJHfc " 1 - y*~- . ' j||Brea|pM 


^Wam^k^-^ m 


-■■nfc'v ^A^^l 


Hk> -*i**jdF* c ' ' ^jMNfe*- * ^""^ueB^B 


^B ./»£•• - * ""^^rsjySM^ 




wss!^' ''' vm 


ft^--' r " SK 


f^!5^|B 


EfT*"*^ *|8| 




"il 






rJ:^:»'m 


aBfc -^ **v" '^I^Bk^I 


BK, . ' '-'Tb 'W 






■ ^E » r 


it V . I 


fc»# ^ .1 


mw* 1 *^ . ,'V 




MWk. C: *i]fljjjjfe''; :1 ^H 


■J ' v 




S^4i 




^5- 



FIG. 2.— OYSTER SHELLS SHOWING PITS AND CHAMBERS MADE BY BORING CLAM. 

(After Moore.) 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate XI. 




FIG. 1.— TONGING OYSTERS, WORKING THE TONGS ON THE BOTTOM. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.)] 




FIG. 2.— TONGING OYSTERS, LIFTING AND EMPTYING THE TONGS. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



-Doc. 890. 



Plate XII. 




FIG. 1.— . PATENT TONGS, USED TO SOME EXTENT IN TAKING OYSTERS 
IN THE LOWER PART OF CHESAPEAKE BAY. 







FIG. 2.— UNLOADING OYSTERS BY MEANS OF A CRANE OPERATED BY A 
DONKEY ENGINE IN THE SMALL BUILDING AT THE RIGHT. 



(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XIII. 




FIG. 1.— SMALL SAILING BOAT USED IN TONGING OYSTERS IN 
QUINNIPIAC RIVER, CONN. 




FIG. 2.— SMALL SAILING BOAT USED IN TONGING OYSTERS IN RIVERS 
ON THE COAST OF ALABAMA. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 41 

ment on each shaft is made with the teeth sloping inward, and when 
the handles are closed the two are brought together, the whole forming 
a basketlike affair, 3 J feet long by about 8 or 10 inches deep. In 
operation (PL XI, fig. 1), the handles are w T orked scissors fashion, 
and the teeth forced under the oysters retained in the basket, which 
is then lifted (PL XI, fig. 2). Oyster tongs vary in length with the 
depth of water in different localities. In some places, as in the 
Rappahannock River, oysters are tonged with such apparatus from 
a depth of at least 20 feet. 

PATENT TONGS. 

Patent tongs are used quite extensively in Virginia and but very 
little elsewhere. From Plate XII, figure 1, it will be seen that their 
general construction is similar to that of hand tongs, except that the 
handles are of iron, about 6 feet long and provided with an eye at the 
end for the attachment of ropes for lowering and raising the tongs. 
The basket of the tongs is of considerably heavier material than in 
case of the hand tongs. Patent tongs are employed in water too 
deep to admit of the use of ordinary tongs and are raised and lowered 
by a spool or windlass, as in Plate XII, figure 1. While being lowered 
the tongs are locked open by the short hook seen on one of the handles 
just above the center pin. When they strike bottom, the consequent 
release of the weight of the baskets on the handles alkyws the hook 
to become disengaged. The tongs are then "jigged 7 ' by jerking 
upon the rope several times, causing the teeth to sink more deeply, 
and then lifted by the windlass. 

SMALL TONGS AND NIPPERS. 

In very shallow water of perhaps 2 to 4 feet in depth small tongs are 
often used. These consist of two wooden handles about 7 feet long, 
arranged as in the case of the ordinary tongs, but with only a single 
bar on each about 10 inches long, each bar being provided with teeth. 
This instrument is much lighter and more convenient to use in shallow 
water than ordinary tongs, especially where only a few barrels of 
oysters are desired. Such tongs are sometimes called "nippers." 
In other regions the term "nipper" is applied to a device of a similar 
nature, except that, instead of ending in a toothed bar, each handle 
terminates in a narrow blunt blade, thus forming true pincers or 
nippers, with which single oysters can be taken or dislodged from 
rocks or pilings. 

TONGING BOATS. 

In Plate XIII, figures 1 and 2, and Plate XIV, figure 1, are shown 
various styles of tonging boats. Plate XIII, figure 1 , shows a small boat 
used on Long Island Sound; and Plate XIII, figure 2, a small tonging 
boat at Bayou Labatre, Ala. Plate XIV, figure 1, shows the t3^pe of 
tonging boat used at Apalachicola, Fla. These boats often carry 
an auxilary gasoline engine besides the sails. Such a boat with 
engine is seen in the figure, returning with a load of oysters which 
have been obtained by tonging. Boats of this sort often have a shal- 
low hold into which oysters are piled until full, after which they are 
heaped on deck. Plate XII, figure 1, shows a boat equipped with 
patent tongs. 



42 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

On the small boats, in compliance with State law, the oysters are' 
culled on a board placed across the boat, as in Plate XI. 

DREDGES AND DREDGING BOATS. 

The hand dredge is shown in Plate XV, figure 1. It consists 
essentially of two triangles made of three-fourths inch iron bar, 
joined at the apices, and the bases separated about 18 inches by 
curved bars, as seen in the figure at left. It usually measures 4 or 5 
feet in width. The base of the lower triangle consists of a bar about 
1 J inches thick, to which are welded teeth about 3 inches long, set about 
3 inches apart. To a ring at the apex of the dredge a rope or ware 
cable is attached, by which the dredge is lowered and raised, either 
by hand or by the hand windlass. Plate XVI, figure 1, shows a small 
dredging sloop or "skipjack" under sail on Chesapeake Bay, the 
dredge on the port side being lifted and the hand windlass visible 
beyond it. In some States, as Maryland, somewhat heavier dredges 
than this are operated by the use of a donkey engine placed on the 
deck of a sailing vessel (PI. XVII, fig. 2). Plate XVI, figure 2, 
shows such a dredging schooner at work. These vessels are pro- 
pelled entirely by sails, it being illegal to dredge with other than 
sails as motive power; the engine merely operates the dredge. 

From one to three dredges are usually operated from eacli side of 
the boat, each dredge being raised and emptied in turn. Plate XVII, 
figure 1, shows the dredge being thrown overboard and the roller over 
which the chain moves in lowering and raising it. After the full 
dredge is lifted it is allowed to rest on the roller and is emptied by 
pulling the bag forward (PI. XVII, fig. 2), thus turning it wrong side 
out and dumping the oysters on deck. The dredge is then dropped 
overboard again. The oysters are culled on deck and then shoveled 
into the hold or onto the pile on deck. 

A yet heavier and stouter form of dredge (PI. XV, fig. 2) is used 
where dredging with power boats is allowed. It will be seen to 
resemble the other patterns, except that it is largely made of heavy, 
flat, iron bars, about 2 inches wide and nearly 1 inch thick and firmly 
braced. The lower part of the bag is of iron mesh instead of cotton. 
Dredges of this sort measure from 5 to 7 feet in width and hold 12 
to 15 bushels of oysters (one oyster company uses larger ones holding 
nearly 30 bushels; these are emptied by mechanical means). These 
dredges are raised and lowered by a heavy chain which passes through 
a pulley on a stout post in the midline forward and then down to 
the hoister in the hold. The hoister is turned by the engine of the 
boat. Plate XIV, figure 2, shows the arrangement of rollers, pul- 
leys, post, and dredges on a gasoline power dredging boat. In 
Long Island Sound large steamers are often used for dredging on 
leased beds. One company has two steamers each carrying three 
dredges on a side, six in all, each with a capacity of nearly 30 iVushels. 
These two steamers are each about twice as large as any "other oyster 
steamer in the world, having a capacity of 8,000 bushels (PI. XVIII, 
fig. 2). 



U. S. B. F— Doc. 890. 



Plate XIV. 




FIG. 1.— SMALL SLOOP USED IN TONGING OYSTERS NEAR APALACH ICOLA, 
FLA., RETURNING WITH LOAD OF OYSTERS. SHOWING OYSTER CAN- 
NERIES IN BACKGROUND. 




FIG. 2.— GASOLINE BOAT USED 



IN DREDGING OYSTERS 
SOUND. 



IN LONG ISLAND 



In the center is the post to which are attached the pulleys through which pass the chains 
leading to the dredges on each side. When the dredges are being raised and lowered, 
the chains move over the rollers on the gunwale. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



PLATE XV. 




FIG. 1.— HAND DREDGES AND WINCHES FOR HOISTING THEM. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N.Cory, Maryland State University.) 




FIG. 2.— MACHINE-HOISTED DREDGE USED IN TAKING OYSTERS. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



PLATE XVI, 




FIG. 1.— SMALL SLOOP OR "SKIP-JACK" USED IN DREDGING OYSTERS IN CHESA- 
PEAKE BAY. 

The dredge shown lying on the roller is raised and lowered by the hand windlass over which 
the man is stooping. (Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 




FIG. 2.— OYSTER-DREDGING SCHOONER IN CHESAPEAKE BAY. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate XVII. 




FIG. 1.— LOWERING THE DREDGE. 
(Photo from Prof.E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



m 

















FIG. 2.— EMPTYING THE DREDGE. 

In this case the dredge has been lifted by a donkey engine, part of which may be seen at the right. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XVIII. 







wtmXmA 




FIG. 1.— OYSTER FLEET OPERATING FROM CAMBRIDGE, MD., LYING IN HARBOR. 

Cambridge is only one of the several important oyster centers on Chesapeake Bay. (Photo 
from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 




FIG. 2.— ONE OF THE TWO LARGEST OYSTER STEAMERS IN THE WORLD, BOTH 
OWNED BY A NEW ENGLAND COMPANY. 

Three dredges lifting 30 bushels each are operated on each side. The capacity of the steamer 
is 8,000 bushels per day. (Photo from H. C. Rowe Co.) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XIX. 




FIG. 1.— LARGE OYSTER HOUSE AT PROVIDENCE, R. I., SHOWING DREDGE BOAT 
UNLOADING OYSTERS AT RIGHT AND ELEVATOR TO SHELL PILE AT LEFT. 




FIG. 2.— UNLOADING OYSTERS FROM THE BOAT AT ONE OF THE LARGE OYSTER 
HOUSES BY MEANS OF A BELT CONVEYER. 



,r..<< 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 43 

UNLOADING AT WHARF. 

In most cases the oysters are shoveled from the hold or deck into 
large measures or buckets and hoisted to the wharf by a rope passing 
over a pulley and operated by hand or by a crane with a donkey 
engine as motive power, as in Plate XII, figure 2. The buckets are 
emptied onto the wharf and the oysters removed later in wheel- 
barrows ; or into wheelbarrows and the oysters rolled into the shuck- 
ing room on a level with the wharf, or sometimes to a storage room 
on an upper floor (PL XII, fig. 2). Some large oyster companies 
have arrangements whereby the buckets are lifted directly into the 
storage room, and some have an elevator, the end of which may bo 
lowered into the boat and the oysters shoveled onto an endless belt 
or other carrying device (PL XIX, fig. 2) . 

This carrier transports the oysters directly to the storage room or 
drops them into another endless bucket-chain carrier which does so. 
In case the oysters are to be canned they are dumped from the buckets, 
which have lifted them from the boat, directly into cars, which are 
then pushed into the steamers inside the cannery. 

FLOATING. 

Brief mention may be made of the practice whereby, in some 
localities, oysters, after being taken from the beds, are "floated" 
for a time before being used. This process is accomplished by 
spreading the oysters out in a large shallow barge or float so con- 
structed that, while resting at the surface, water may freely circulate 
through it, the oysters thereby being covered a£ all limes. Such 
floats vary considerably in structure, often consisting of a rectangular 
framework some 12 or 15 feet wide by 20 to 30 feet long, made of 
four large timbers 15 or 18 inches in diameter, with a bottom of 
boards laid so that cracks are left between them. The float may be 
towed to the desired point and anchored either before or after the 
oysters are placed in it. 

The floating is usually undertaken for one of two purposes — purifi- 
cation and cleaning of the oysters or temporary storage. In certain 
regions oysters from beds which are exposed to sewage are floated 
in waters of a certain degree of saltness designated by the health 
authorities until any possible impurities contained are thrown off. 
In such salt water the oysters do not become bloated, as they would 
if floated in fresh. Oysters are also sometimes floated in order that 
they may free themselves from sand or dirt contained in the intestinal 
tract. 

Some companies maintain floats such as described in which a 
temporary stock of oysters may be kept a day or two in order to have 
a supply on hand to fill extra orders or to tide over a shortage caused 
by failure to obtain sufficient stock directly from the beds, for any 
cause, such as the breakdown of a boat or formation of heavy ice over 
the beds. In this case the floats are placed by the oyster house in 
water of about the saltness of that over the beds. 

The practice of floating oysters in fresh water of creeks and rivers 
for the purpose of "fattening" has largely died out or been suppressed 
by health authorities. The oyster did not fatten in such circum- 
stances, but merely enlarged itself by absorbing creek water which 
the cc/isumer paid for at oyster prices. . 



44 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTEE INDUSTRY. 

PREPARATION FOR MARKET OR SHIPMENT. 

Oysters are usually shipped in three general conditions — in the 
shell; shucked, on ice; and canned. The building where oysters 
are handled in either or both of the first two conditions is referred 
to as an oyster house or, in some sections, especially to distinguish 
it from a cannery, as a "raw house" or "raw-oyster house." If 
oysters are canned, the plant is known as a cannery. Plate XIX, 
figure 1 , shows the front view of a large oyster house. Oyster houses 
are provided with a wharf of some sort, so that the boats may be 
unloaded directly, as described above. 

IN THE SHELL. 

Oysters are shipped in the shell usually in barrels, sometimes in 
sacks, without ice, although for long distances a refrigerator car is 
often used. In many cases, especially for shorter hauls or transporta- 
tion by river boats, the barrels are not headed, a piece of heavy gunny- 
sack being fastened over the top of the barrel. A considerable 
export trade in oysters to England is carried on from the waters of 
New York and New England. These oysters go in barrels holding 
3 bushels and one-half peck, headed up. Only the best-shaped, 
selected oysters are used for the export trade. 

A large number of oysters are thus handled in the shell, since oysters 
on the half shell have found a place on the menu of the leading 
hotels and restaurants. For this purpose oysters from certain 
beds have come to be esteemed as most desirable. These have 
acquired trade names by which they are universally known and which 
are derived from the locality from which the oysters are taken. 
The best-known examples are the Blue Points from beds near Blue 
Point, a cape on the south side of Long Island; Cotuits, from Cotuit 
Harbor, Mass., and Lynnhavens, from Lynnhaven Bay, Ya. There 
is a growing tendency to look upon these terms merely as trade 
names and to employ them to designate any oyster answering the 
requirements of size and shape of these oysters, regardless of the 
waters from which they were taken. 

Blue Points (PI. I) are small oysters, about 3 to 4 inches long by 
2 to 2\ inches in width. They are rather rounded in form and the 
shells are fairly smooth. The meats are small and of very delicate 
flavor, making these oysters very acceptable when served raw on 
the half shell. For this reason Blue Points have acquired a wide 
reputation. Lynnhavens (PL XX) and Cotuits (PL XXI) are larger 
oysters than Blue Points and of more angular shape. Because of 
their fatness and flavor they have become highly esteemed. 

Oysters are shipped in the shell to points on the Pacific coast both 
for the market and for planting as seed or for fattening. In 1915, 
over two-thuds of the 156,104 bushels of 03'sters produced on the 
Pacific coast were raised from transplanted eastern oysters. b 

a One firm puts out an oyster powder made by extracting in a vacuum the moisture from oyster meats. 
This powder is sold in small vials packed in pasteboard cartons and is used in making broths and soups. 
So far as the writer is aware, only one firm puts such a product on the market . 

b Radcliffe, .U Fishery Industries of the United States. Report of the Division of Statistics and Methods 
of the Fisheries for 1918. Appendix X, Report, U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries, 1918, 167 pp. Washington, 
1919. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XX. 




'LYNNHAVENS," FROM LYNNHAVEN BAY, VA. 
About one-half natural size. 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



PLATE XXI. 




"COTUITS," FROM COTUIT HARBOR, MASS. 
About one-half natural size. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XXII. 




FIG. 1.— SHUCKING TABLE IN LARGE OYSTER HOUSE. 

The oysters come down from the storage room above and out the bottom 
of the V-shaped chute. The worker stands on the bench and places 
the oyster to be opened on the small block on the edge of the table. 




FIG. 2.— WASHING FRESH OYSTER MEATS ON "SKIMMING BOARD. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



U. S. B. F. — Do 



PLATE XXIII. 




FIG. 1.— "RIFFLE" OYSTER WASHER, ON WHICH FRESH OYSTER MEATS ARE 
WASHED PREPARATORY TO BEING PACKED ON ICE. 




FIG. 2.— SEVERAL STYLES OF CONTAINERS USED IN SHIPPING OYSTERS. 

Shucked oysters are placed in metal or glass containers, which are packed in the boxes or 

tubs with cracked ice about them. 




FIG. 3.— FIFTEEN CARS OF OYSTERS READY TO BE RUN INTO THE OYSTER 

CANNERY. 

Each car holds 20 bushels, making 300 bushels in all. The capacity of this cannery is 

1,500 bushels per day. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 45 

SHUCKED, ON ICE. 

The process of opening an oyster and removing the " meat " is known 
generally as "shucking." For this purpose the oysters are conveyed, 
to tables or stalls of various sorts in the oyster house. In the smaller 
establishments this is done by wheelbarrow and shovel; in the 
larger, the oysters are first taken to a storage room, as described 
above, and then let down through chutes to the individual stalls 
of the shuckers. Plate XXII, figure 1, represents a shucking table 
in one of the large oyster houses. The shucker stands on the bench 
before the table. The oysters fall down the slanting chute to the 
narrow table along the edge of which are seen the blocks on which 
the shucker places the oyster to open it. The shells are thrown 
through small chutes in the table and fall into the trough seen below, 
whence they are removed by a mechanical carrier. 

The process of shucking requires considerable skill and strength 
of hand and wrist. Various methods are employed and several slightly 
differing styles of opening knives. Some shuckers first break off the 
"bill" or tip of the shell with a small hammer, insert the knife into 
the opening thus made, and cut the large muscle holding the shell 
together. Others scorn such aid, since it takes longer, and by steady 
pressure force the knife between the shells at the tips or the side. 
A skilled shucker moves his hands so rapidly the eye can hardly 
follow the movements. A heavy mitten is worn on the left hand, 
which grasps the oyster, the shell being very sharp on the edges. 
A fair day's shucking is 10 to 12 gallons." If the oysters are in good 
condition, "fat," 12 gallons or a little more may be shucked. The 
average yield of shucked oysters from a bushel in the shell varies 
greatly with the condition and quality of the oysters. If the oyster 
meats are full and plump, they are spoken of as "fat" and the yield 
is greater than when "poor"; that is, the meat thin, watery, often 
semitransparent. A fair average yield is from 6 to 8 pints per 
bushel. 

The "meats" are thrown into a galvanized-iron measure, which in 
some cases is perforated to allow the drainage of excess liquor. In 
some houses, however, the measures are not perforated and are 
partially filled with water into which the oysters are placed as 
shucked. When the measure is full it is taken to the measuring 
window and the oysters measured or weighed. The shucker some- 
times receives a ticket, but in many cases the individual scores are 
marked up on a board by the weighing window and payment made 
weekly. In the smaller oyster houses the shells are thrown by the 
shucker to the floor and later removed in wheelbarrows. In many 
such houses each shucker stands in a sort of movable wooden stall 
placed before the table. This stall is 18 or 20 inches wide and about 
waist-high, being open at the rear so that the shucker may step in 
and out readily. Such stalls keep the accumulating piles of shells 
from encroaching on the space where the worker stands and also 
afford something against which he may lean while working. In 
some of the larger houses, where the shells are not thrown on the 
floor, the stalls are used merely to satisfy the shuckers who have 

a Many, however, shuck more than this amount . The author knows of one man in particular, at Hamp- 
ton, Va., who opened 26 gallons a day. Since his score was marked up and pay given for this amount, 
this record is authentic. 



46 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

become accustomed to their use in smaller places and find it less 
tiring to work while standing in such a stall. 

Shuckers are paid by the gallon; during the winter of 1919-20 
the price was SO. 35 to $0.40 per gallon. Some large firms in New 
England employ Portuguese for shucking; in places farther south 
many Negroes are used for this work. Both men and women are 
often employed; especially is this true where colored labor is used. 

After being shucked the oysters are spread out on washing tables. 
These are usually comparatively simple in form, as seen in Plate XXII, 
figure 2, are made of galvanized iron, and measure about 5 feet long 
by 2\ wide, the bottom being perforated to allow the water to dram off 
and supported on a wooden framework, as shown in the figure. Some 
of the larger firms use more or less elaborate washing tables, some being 
of the "riffle" style (PL XXIII, fig. 1). This consists essentially of a 
sloping zinc platform with ridges or elevations across it which retard 
the oysters as they are washed down it. The oysters receive several 
washings, usually in fresh water from the tap. In some States, 
however, the law requires that the washing be done with salt water of a 
certain strength in order that the oysters may not be bloated by the 
absorption of fresh water. In the larger houses, after receiving a 
preliminary washing on tables similar to that in Plate XXIII, figure 1, 
they are carried by a gentle stream of water down narrow runways 
to tanks on a lower floor (PI. XXIV, fig. 1 ) . These are made of galvan- 
ized iron and are about 5 feet square by 15 inches deep. Here they 
receive two washings, in some cases compressed air being blown 
from pipes through the water in which the oysters are standing. 
This is thought by those using it to remove more thoroughly the fine 
particles of dirt or bits of shell. The excess water is allowed to drain 
off in the last tank, and the oysters are then packed in various sorts of 
containers, as the tin cans in the figure, which are then packed in ice. 

Usually the oysters are divided, according to size, into three 
grades: Standards, the smallest; Selects, the next; and Counts, 
or Extra Selects, the largest. The usual containers are tin cans, as 
shown in Plate XXIII, figure 2, of a capacity of 1, 3, or 5 gallons. 
The oysters are packed into these without any other liquor than that 
remaining after the excess has been drained off, as stated above. 
The cover is put on, often secured by a string passed over the top and 
attached to lugs on each side. The cans are packed in ice singly in 
boxes (PL XXIV, fig. 2), or several together in a barrel. Sometimes 
metal containers, shown at right in Plate XXIII, figure 2, are used. 
These are packed in a bucket carrier with ice about them. The 
figure also shows the 5-galIon size tin can, the bucket carrier, the 
short boxes containing tin cans, and a bottle container with paste- 
board cap, holding one-tenth gallon. Thirty bottles are packed in a 
flat, wide box (see figure), with ice over their tops, and a wooden 
cover is nailed on. 

CANNING OYSTERS. 

Oysters were first canned at Baltimore in 1820, and the expression 
"cove oyster," which now seems synonymous with canned oysters, 
was originally given to the small oysters found in the coves on the 
west bank of Chesapeake Bay between Baltimore and the mouth of 
the Potomac. The industry has spread rapidly in the last 20 years. 

a. Smith, H. M. Oysters: The World's Most Valuable Water Crop. National Geographic Magazine, 
March, 1913, p. 25S. Washington. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XXIV. 




FIG. 1.— TANKS FOR WASHING SHUCKED OYSTERS. 

The oyster meats come down the metal trough from the floor above. After washing they are 

placed in the tin cans. 




FIG. 2.— PACKING FRESH OYSTER MEATS IN ICE FOR SHIPMENT. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



U. S. B. F. — Doc 



Plate XXV. 




FIG. 1.— CAR OF OYSTERS READY TO BE RUN INTO STEAMER. 







^^ it 7 !*' """** ITJl 


i v «*1 







FIG. 2.— INTERIOR OF OYSTER CANNERY; OPENING STEAMED OYSTERS. 
(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XXVI. 




FIG. 1.— INTERIOR OF OYSTER CANNERY, SHOWING TABLE ON WHICH THE 
OYSTERS ARE PUT INTO THE CANS. 




fl fl te/ Tr ' -^ 




FIG. 2.— INTERIOR OF OYSTER CANNERY, SHOWING PACKING TABLE, CAPPING 
MACHINE, AND BASKET IN WHICH THE FILLED CANS ARE "PROCESSED." 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XXVII. 




FIG. 1.— LOWERING A BASKET OF CANNED OYSTERS INTO 
THE KETTLE OR STEAMER TO BE "PROCESSED." 

(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 




FIG. 2.— BASKET OF CANNED OYSTERS, AFTER HAVING BEEN "PROCESSED," 
READY TO BE LOWERED INTO THE "COOLER," AT RIGHT, WHERE RUNNING 
WATER IS PASSED ABOUT THE CANS. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 47 

There are now 15 canneries in Baltimore, which city still leads in 
number of canneries; 16 in Mississippi, 12 being at Biloxi; 18 in 
Georgia, 4 at Savannah, 4 in and about Brunswick, and others at 
smaller points; about 12 in South Carolina; 7 in North Carolina; 
6 or 7 in Louisiana; and 4 or 5 in Florida. 

Oyster canneries, like raw houses, are located on the water front 
with a wharf at which the oysters are unloaded from the boats. 
Plate XIV, figure 1, shows a view of an oyster cannery. At most 
canneries the oysters are unloaded from the boat in large tubs or 
buckets, as previously described, and dumped directly into cars 10 or 
12 feet long, made of iron strips, basket-fashion, as in Plates XXIII 
and XXV. The cars are then pushed on a track into the building. 
Plate XXIII, figure 3, shows a line of 15 loaded cars, 20 bushels in 
each car, 300 bushels in all. The capacity of this particular cannery 
is 1,500 bushels per day. 

The cars of oysters are run into rectangular iron steamers, which 
are often long enough to accommodate 3 cars at once. Steam is 
passed through for from 3 to 10 minutes, depending on the thickness 
of the shells. The cars are then pushed on out the other end of the 
steamer, sometimes being afterwards switched to another track or 
another room by the aid of the device shown in Plate XXV, figure 
1. The short piece of track upon which the car rests is also provided 
with wheels, and the whole is rolled onto a lower track running at 
right angles to the first. 

The steamed oysters are then opened directly from the cars by 
shuckers or openers standing alongside (PL XXV, fig. 2). Each 
worker has a metal bucket, which is suspended by a hook to the 
side of the car. The buckets are perforated to allow the escape of ex- 
cess liquor. A knife is used, but no such skill or strength is required 
as is necessary in the case of raw oysters, since the steamed oysters 
have been killed by the process and the shells are gaping and easily 
separated. When a worker's bucket is filled, it is taken, to the weigh- 
ing window, payment being by weight, where either the money or a 
ticket is received. Both men and women, and often children over 
the legal age, do this work. In Alabama and Mississippi the work- 
ers are largely of the Slavic races. In those States many of the 
canning firms furnish quarters for their labor, often wood and water 
being included. 

After being weighed, the oysters are washed two or three times 
with tap water in vats or on tables and then carried in buckets to the 
packing table (PI. XXVI, fig. 1). The general construction of such 
a table is shown in the figure; it is made of wood, of convenient height, 
and about 12 feet long by 6 wide in the wider part and' 3 in the nar- 
rower. The packing is usually done by women or girls, who stand 
along the sides of the table. The empty cans are supplied the packers 
from boxes behind them, or often a supply is placed along the edge 
of the table on which the oysters are piled. The packers at the farther 
end (see figure) of the table fill the cans almost full, placing the 
oysters in with the hands. They then put the cans in the rack or 
trough extending along over the table. The bottom of this is an 
endless belt which moves the cans forward until they are stopped 
by the crossbar at the nearer end of the trough. One packer stands 
on each side of the table, which is narrower here, takes the partially 
filled cans from the trough, one at a time, places them on the balances 



48 THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 

seen in the figure, and fills them up until the correct weight is reached. 
So far in the process there is practically no liquor in the can. Cans 
varying in capacity from 3 "to 10 ounces are usually packed. The 
cans are then placed on another belt, which carries them along the 
trough to the left under a length of perforated pipe from which hot 
brine drops into the cans. 

The belt then takes them to the capping machine (PI. XXVI, 
fig. 2), where the cover is put on. This is commonly done by the 
crimping process, although some firms still use the method of sealing 
the cover on with solder. The machine shown in the figure crimps 
the covers on 58 cans per minute. 

After leaving the capping machine the cans are placed in large 
circular iron baskets, about 4 feet across, and lowered into a cylin- 
drical metal processing tank (PI. XXVII, fig. 1). In these tanks 
the cans are heated by steam to a high temperature for a short time, 
after which they are removed and lowered into a circular wooden 
tank or cooler (PI. XXVII, fig. 2), and cooled with running water. 
The baskets of cans are then wheeled on tracks to the labeling and 
packing room (PI. XXVIII, fig. 1), where the labels are pasted on 
by girls or women. The finished product is then packed in boxes, 
this work being done by men (PI. XXVIII, fig. 1). 

DISPOSITION OF OYSTER SHELLS. 

In the larger oyster houses the shells are usually dropped by the 
shucker through a chute leading from the table down to a wide endless 
belt or a trough through which passes an endless scrape carrier. 
These devices carry the shells outside and up an elevator (PI. XXIX, 
fig. 1) or an inclined plane (PI. XXVIII, fig. 2) . The carrier continues 
over the shell heap, sometimes being inclosed, and drops the shells 
at certain points, which may be varied as the pile grows (PI. XXVIII, 
fig. 2). In other 03 T ster houses, especially the smaller ones, the shells 
are removed in wheelbarrows, which are rolled on planks up the side 
or across the top of the pile (PI. XXIX, fig. 2). 

The shells are used for cultch, as previously described ; for making 
lime, which is placed on soil as a fertilizer; for poultry grit; for making 
shell roads; and for ballast for railroad track beds. In Plate 
XX X, figure 1, is shown a kiln in which the shells are being burned 
to make lime, a pile of the burned shells appearing in the foreground. 
The interior of the kiln is cone-shaped at the bottom. The shells 
are deposited in the kiln by the elevator, a certain amount of fine coal 
being mixed in as fuel. The fire in the lower part of the kiln is kept 
burning constantly, and the burned shells are shaken out through 
the grate at the bottom. The shells are then allowed to air-slake, 
and the lime is sold for fertilizer. The burned shells bring abouc 
$8 per ton. About a ton is put on an acre. A ton of burned shells 
increases in bulk to about a ton and a half during the slaking process. 
A ton of the slaked lime sells for $6.50. 

Crushed shells are used for poultry grit. The shells are first dried 
in a direct-heat rotary drier similar to that used in factories where 
fertilizer is made from menhaden. The degree of heat applied de- 
pends entirely on the percentage of moisture in the shells ; the greater 
the moisture the higher the temperature required. It is essential 
that a close observance be kept during the drying process, in order 
to regulate the temperature, as shells may be damaged by too much 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 890. 



Plate XXVIII. 




FIG. 1. — INTERIOR OF OYSTER CANNERY; LABELING AND BOXING CANS OF 

OYSTERS. 

(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 





FIG. 2.— SHELL PILE OF A LARGE OYSTER COMPANY, SHOWING CONVEYER FOR 
CARRYING SHELLS FROM SHUCKING TABLE TO THE PILE. 



(Photo from J. S. Darl ing and Son.) 



U. S. B. F. — Doc. 890. 



Plate XXIX. 




FIG. 1.— KILN FOR BURNING OYSTER SHELLS TO MAKE LIME, SHOWING 
SHELL HEAP IN BACKGROUND AND PILE OF LIME IN FOREGROUND. 

(Photo from Prof. E. N. Cory, Maryland State University.) 




FIG. 2.— LOADING OYSTER SHELLS INTO CAR FOR USE IN BUILDING ROADS. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 49 

heat. If the temperature is too high, the shells are likely to turn 
yellow, and if they are not sufficiently dried they may become soft. 
If they have been sheltered from the weather and are thoroughly dry 
the drying process may be dispensed with. After passing through 
the drier they are carried by a conveyer to the crusher and from 
there to the screen, which is usually of the revolving type and made of 
various-sized mesh to separate the crushed shells into several grades 
or sizes. 

In Plate XXIX, figure 2, shells are being loaded on cars for road 
making. In some cases the shells are partially crushed before being 
put on the roads ; in other cases they are put on whole and are worn 
down by the traffic. Plate V, figure 1, shows shells being loaded on 
a scow for planting to catch set. 

The shell heaps are cleaned up annually. Most of the shells are 
used for one of the above purposes. The shell piles shown in the fig- 
ures convey but a faint notion of the actual vast bulk of the oyster 
crop taken annually from the waters of the United States. 

LEGAL REGULATIONS. 

In each State in which there is an oyster industry there are certain 
regulations for its conduct, provided by State law and administered 
by officers and inspectors, appointed in nearly all cases by a State 
fish or oyster commissioner or president of a State conservation com- 
mission. 

The regulations, while necessarily differing widely to meet the 
varying conditions, usually provide for a system of surveying and 
staking off with conspicuous buoys or markers the various beds 
leased or owned by the planters and the "natural" beds, the latter 
being those which have grown up naturally and which are open to 
the public. In some States, where there are many leased or privately 
owned beds, this surveying is very carefully attended to, and accu- 
rate maps of the oyster beds are provided. In others, especially 
those in which there are few or no leased beds, the surveys are poorly 
cared for, and no maps are kept. 

The legal season in which oysters may be taken for market is 
usually restricted to the months of September to April, inclusive. 
The oyster is thus not interfered with during the spawning season, 
which occurs in the summer. 

A cull law is usually provided by which oysters under a certain 
size — 2\ or 3 inches generally — may not be taken except for seed, 
but must be thrown back on the beds from which lifted. Some States 
allow only sailboats and hand dredges to work on natural beds, 
as in Long Island Sound; some forbid dredging of any sort, all 
oysters being taken with tongs; some allow dredging only on leased 
beds; some, only in water of a certain depth; and some allow 
engine-driven dredges to be used on boats propelled by sails. 

In most States only a legal resident may take oysters from the 
waters, and a license fee must usually be paid. In some cases oysters 
can not be shipped from the State in the shell, except for seed. This 
compels the establishment of oyster houses within the State and the 
retention of capital in that State. In others, as Louisiana, the oys- 
ters may be shipped out in the shell, but a tax per bushel must be 

181698°— 20- 4 



50 THE OYSTER AST) THE OYSTEE INDUSTRY. 

paid to the State by the shipper. Some States require no license fee, 
but the dealer pays a tax per bushel or gallon for oysters sold. This 
nominally throws the tax on the dealer instead of the oysterman. 

Most States make provision for leasing bottoms for the cultivation 
of oysters at a small rental, $0.25 to SI or $2 per acre, for a term of 
years, the number of acres per person being limited. Provision is 
usually made that the natural beds may not be leased, but must be 
left open to the public. In some of the southern States there is very 
little interest in leasing beds, there being sufficient oysters found on 
the natural beds. In such States there is little or no planting done, 
except a limited amount by the State in the effort to build up certain 
natural beds. 

The health authorities of most of the States provide certain regu- 
lations requiring that oyster beds be located at safe distances from 
sources of contamination, such as sewers, etc., and that oysters must 
pass certain rigid inspection tests for bacterial content before being 
placed on the market. The Federal Government also inspects oys- 
ters which enter into interstate commerce. 

There are many other minor regulations peculiar to the different 
States and growing out of special conditions prevailing in each. The 
details of these may be' secured from the State shellfish commissions 
of the various States. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For the benefit of those desiring more detailed information relating to the American 
oyster of the eastern coast than could be given in a publication of this sort, there is 
appended the following brief list of literature. This includes only some of the more 
important researches on this subject, together with certain recent papers which show 
the present trend of oyster investigations. 

Belding, D. L. 

1912. A report upon the quahaug and oyster fisheries of Massachusetts. The 
Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Wright and Potter, State Printers, 
Boston. (Treats of the life historv of the oyster, a study of the distribu- 
tion of the larvae, and methods of oyster culture in Massachusetts.) 
Brooks, "W. K. 

1880. Development of the American oyster. Studies from the Biological 
Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, No. IV, 1SS0, pp. 1 to 81, 10 pis. 
Baltimore. (Dr. Brooks's original paper in which the development of 
the American oyster from the egg to the free-swimming larva with a 
shell is described for the first time. Standard authority for the ground 
it covers.) 

1905. The oyster; a popular summary of a scientific study. 2d and rev. ed. The 
Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. (Semipppular account of the anatomy, 
development, and habits of the oyster and suggestions for methods of 
oyster culture in Chesapeake Bay.) 
Churchill, E. P. jr., and Gtjtsell, J. S. 

The investigation of the oyster larvae of Great South Bay. Forthcoming 

report, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. (Describes methods for making col- 
lections and surveys of the distribution of oyster larva? with reaped to 
placing cultch and the results of the application of these methods to a 
particular region.) 
Coker, R. E. 

1907. Experiments in oyster culture in Pamlico Sound, N. C. North Carolina 
Geological and Economic Survey, Bulletin No. 15. Raleigh. (Describes 
experiments showing that the planting of both seed oysters and cultch 
could be profitably undertaken in North Carolina if State laws provided 
for leasing of ground and protection of lessee.) 
Danglade, Ernest. 

1917. Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms in the 
vicinity of Apalachicola, Fla. Appendix V, Report, L T . S. Commis- 
sioner of Fisheries, 1916, 68 pp., 7 pis., 1 chart. \Vashington. 



THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 51 

Grave, Caswell. 

1912. A manual of oyster culture in Maryland. Fourth Report of the Maryland 

Shellfish Commission, 1912. Baltimore. (Describes oyster conditions 
in Chesapeake Bay, character of bottom, food, etc. , and suggests methods 
of culture.) 

Kellogg, J. L. 

1910. Shellfish industries. Henry Holt & Co., New York. (Includes accounts 
of the life history of oysters, clams, and scallops. Treats quite exhaus- 
tively the industries connected with the putting of these bivalves on the 
market.) 

Mitchell, P. H. 

1914. The effect of water-gas tar on oysters. Bulletin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 
Vol. XXXII, 1912, pp. 199-206. Washington. 

1914. The oxygen requirements of shellfish. Ibid., pp. 207-222. 

1917. Nutrition of oysters: Glycogen formation and storage. Bulletin, U. S. 

Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXXV, 1915-16, pp. 151-162. Washington. 

1918. Nutrition of oysters: The nature of the so-called "fattening" of oysters. 

Ibid., pp. 477-484. 
Mitchell, P. H., and Barney, R. L. 

1917. The occurrence in Virginia of green-gilled oysters similar to those of 
Marennes. Ibid., pp. 135-150. 
Moore, H. F. 

1897. Oysters and methods of oyster culture. In A manual of fish culture. 
Appendix, Report of Commissioner, U. S. Commission of Fish and Fishe- 
ries, 1897, pp. 265-338, 18 pis. Washington. 

1907. Survey of oyster bottoms in Matagorda Bay, Tex. Document 610, U. S. 
Bureau of Fisheries, 86 pp., 13 pis., 1 chart. Washington. 

1910. Condition and extent of the oyster beds of James River, Va. Document 

729, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 83 pp., 2 charts. Washington. 

1911. Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds of Delaware. Document 

746, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 30 pp., 1 chart. Washington. 

1913. Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of 

Mississippi Sound, Ala. Document 769, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 
62 pp., 5 pis., 1 map. Washington. 
1913. Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of 
Mississippi east of Biloxi. Document 774, IT. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 
42 pp., 6 pis., 1 map. Washington. 
Moore, H. F., and Pope, T. E. B. 

1910. Oyster culture experiments and investigations in Louisiana. Washington. 
Moore, H. F., and Danglade, Ernest. 

1915. Condition and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of 

Lavaca Bay, Tex. Appendix II, Report, U. S. Commissioner of Fish- 
eries, 1914, 45 pp., 5 pis., 1 chart. Washington. (Besides constituting 
an exhaustive survey of the oyster beds of the regions covered, these 
publications of Dr. H. F. Moore and coworkers treat the food and the 
enemies of the oyster peculiar to each area very thoroughly. They 
contain valuable data which can not be found elsewhere.) 

Nelson, Julius. 

1888-1893, 1900-1915. Studies on the development, habits, and propagation of 
the oyster. Reports, N. J. Agricultural College Experiment Station, 
1888-1893 and 1900-1915. (Includes first study of movements and dis- 
tribution of oys ter larvae in the water, much data concerning development 
of the larvae and long, painstaking attempts to rear the larvae in the labo- 
ratory after artificial fertilization of the eggs.) 

Nelson, T. C. 

1916. Studies of the distribution of the oyster larvae in Little Egg Harbor, N. J. 

Report, N.J. Agricultural College Experiment Station, 1916. (System- 
atic survey of the distribution of oyster larvae made by counting numbers 
found in samples of water of definite size taken at representative points.) 

Stafford, James. 

1913. The Canadian oyster, its development, environment, and culture. Com- 
mission of Conservation, Ottawa, Canada. (Most complete and detailed 
life history of the American oyster yet prepared. Describes the first use 
[1904] of the townet in collecting oyster larvae for study.) 

Wells, Wm. Firth. 

1916. Artificial purification of oysters. Reprint No. 351, Public Health Re- 
ports, U. S. Public Health Service, 4 pp. Washington. 

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